Explain why the League of Nati essays

Explain why the League of Nati essays Explain why the League of Nations failed in the 1930s [6] Its membership never embraced all the great nations. It had no moral determination. It dared not offend the Great Powers. It had positive means of enforcing its decisions. It was not universally trusted. It did not attempt to make a stand until it was too late. The concept of the League of Nations could only succeed if all great Nations were members. Although the membership of the League steadily increased this was never the case. The U.S. never joined the League; Germany was not accepted as a member until 1926 and withdrew in 1934, Russia was initially very hostile to the League and did not join until 1934, and Japan withdrew in 1933. The League showed in its early days that it was not always willing to take a stand over a matter of principle. For example; Italy and Corfu: An Italian General was murdered in 1923 while arranging a new border between Greece and Albania. The Italians blamed the Greeks (although Albanians might have not bee responsible), sent them an unacceptable ultimatum and then invaded the island of Corfu. The League persuaded the Greeks to pay 50 million lire into a Swiss bank while mediation took place. Meanwhile the Conference of Ambassadors of the victorious powers decided that Italy should be appeased and ordered the 50 million lire to be paid to Mussolini as compensation. The result shows that the League was prepared to allow its decisions to be overruled by the Great Powers and that it would permit a big nation to bully a small one. Machine parts were found to contain machine guns. Somebody was re-arming Hungary contrary to the Versailles settlement. Then the League went to investigate it found that the Hungarians had broken up the guns. However, as the train carrying the weapons had started its journey in Italy, it seemed likely that Mussolini was responsible. When the League debated the matter it mildly rebuked the Hungar...

Short Biography of Hugo de Vries

Short Biography of Hugo de Vries Hugo Marie de Vries was born on February 16, 1848, to Maria Everardina Reuvens and Djur Gerrit de Vries in Haarlem, The Netherlands. His father was a lawyer who later went on to serve as the Prime Minister of The Netherlands in the 1870s. As a young child, Hugo quickly found a love of plants and even won several awards for his botany projects while he attended school in Haarlem and The Hauge. de Vries decided to pursue a degree in botany from Leiden University. While studying at the college, Hugo became intrigued by experimental botany and Charles Darwins Theory of Evolution and Natural Selection. He graduated in 1870 from Leiden University with a Doctorate in botany. He taught for a short time before attending Heidelberg University to study Chemistry and Physics. However, that adventure only lasted only  about a semester before he went off to Wurzberg to study plant growth. He went back to teaching botany, geology, and zoology in Amsterdam for several years while returning to Wurzburg on his vacations to continue his work with plant growth. Personal Life In 1875, Hugo de Vries moved to Germany where he worked and published his findings on plant growth. It was while he was living there that he met and married Elisabeth Louise Egeling in 1878. They returned to Amsterdam where Hugo was hired as a lecturer at the University of Amsterdam. It was not long before he was elected as a member of the Royal Academy of the Arts and Sciences. In 1881, he was given full professorship in botany. Hugo and Elisabeth had a total of four children - one daughter and three sons. Biography Hugo de Vries is best known for his work in the field of genetics as the subject was in its so-called infancy stages. Gregor Mendels findings were not well known at the time, and de Vries had come up with some very similar data that could be put together with Mendels laws to create a more fully developed picture of genetics. In 1889, Hugo de Vries hypothesized that his plants had what he called pangenes. Pangenes are what is now known as genes and they carried the genetic information from one generation to the next. In 1900, after Gregor Mendel published his findings from working with pea plants, de Vries saw that Mendel had discovered the same things he had seen in his plants as he wrote his book. Since de Vries did not have Gregor Mendels work as a starting point for his experiments, he instead relied on writings by Charles Darwin who hypothesized how traits were passed down from parents to offspring generation after generation. Hugo decided that the characteristics were transmitted via some sort of particle that was given to the offspring by the parents. This particle was dubbed a pangene and the name was later shortened by other scientists to just gene. In addition to discovering genes, de Vries also focused on how species changed because of those genes. Even though his mentors, while he was at University and worked in labs, did not buy into the Theory of Evolution as written by Darwin, Hugo was a big fan of Darwins work. His decision to incorporate the idea of evolution and a change in species over time into his own thesis for his doctorate was met with a lot of resistance by his professors. He ignored their pleas to remove that part of his thesis and successfully defended his ideas. Hugo de Vries explained that the species changed over time most likely through changes, which he called mutations, in genes. He saw these differences in wild forms of evening primrose and used this as evidence to prove that species did change as Darwin said, and probably on a much quicker timeline than what Darwin had theorized. He became famous in his life due to this theory and revolutionized the way people thought about Darwins Theory of Evolution. Hugo de Vries retired from active teaching in 1918 and moved to his large estate where he continued to work in his large garden and study the plants he grew there, coming up with different discoveries he published. Hugo de Vries died on March 21, 1935, in Amsterdam.

Hierarchy of Needs and FIT theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Hierarchy of Needs and FIT theory - Essay Example It is the fulfillment of the self through our efforts in developing our potential – the essence we are born with; and the acceptance of our limitations. It is our life purpose unfolded, integrated into the self and lived. Now, in keeping with his theory up to this point, if you want to be truly self-actualizing, you need to have your lower needs taken care of, at least to a considerable extent. This makes sense: If you are hungry, you are scrambling to get food; If you are unsafe, you have to be continuously on guard; If you are isolated and unloved, you have to satisfy that need; If you have a low sense of self-esteem, you have to be defensive or compensate. When lower needs are unmet, you can’t fully devote yourself to fulfilling your potentials. Once a person does not feel the needs of self esteem, he or she can weather the storms of daily life. Else they can feel lost. It isn’t surprising, then, the world being as difficult as it is, that only a small percent age of the world’s population is truly, predominantly, self-actualizing. Maslow at one point suggested only about two percent!

Compare and critically analyse the UK marketing strategies of Dominos Essay - 2

Compare and critically analyse the UK marketing strategies of Dominos Pizza and Pizza Hut - Essay Example The company has over 650 stores in the UK, as well as 350 restaurants and 300 delivery stores. Pizza Hut is still a giant among the pizza chains but has been quite disappointed with the second-quarter results in the U.S market. According to a report by (Munarriz, 2014), Pizza Hut’s revenue has climbed by 10.5 percent to $446.6 million, fueled by a 7.7 percent spike in the restaurant sales. The essay is a comparison and a critical analysis of the marketing strategies utilized by Domino’s Pizza and Pizza Hut to achieve competitive advantage in the UK market. The company has an effective strategy towards developing the different sizes of products ranging from small to medium and large. (Dominos, n.d.), agrees that such a strategy is useful in covering the interests of most of the company’s customer base. Also, the idea to develop different types of pizzas is effective in promoting its products and catering for the different tastes of customers. For instance, their range of products includes varieties such as Mexican Green Wave Pizza, Country Special Pizza, Seventh Heaven Pizza, Zesty Chicken pizza, and Grand Supreme Pizza among other popular pizzas. Since not every client visiting the restaurant might be interested in buying pizza, the management has a good move to counter the loophole and now offers extra food items such as Stuffed Garlic Bread Sticks, Calzone pockets, Pasta Italiano, and Taco Indiana. Domino’s pricing strategy in the marketing mix is also effective and targeted towards the lower middle-class as well as the middle-class income group (Dominos, n.d.). In fact, Domino’s delivery price is proven to be slightly below that of Pizza hut in its traditional restaurants. The move by the company to develop a consistent and uniform pricing policy is satisfactory and beneficial towards encouraging repeat customers. The price factor, though lower than that of Pizza Hut, appears to be troublesome and a contributory factor to its

Secondary Traits and Social Systems Essay Example for Free

Secondary Traits and Social Systems Essay Personality can be a part of complex physiology rather than the simple, straightforward approaches taken by many personality theorists.   We are constantly creating and reviving our personalities from our social experiences and our sense of acceptance or rejection by others.   In addition to our perception and pruning of our personalities due to outside forces, we are constantly changing our states of being away from a homeostatic state to physiological states of consonance and dissonance and all points in between. Therefore, a reasonable theory of personality development is possible when taking these social and physiological aspects of our natural quests for self-actualization and harmony of personality.    In agreeing that a more comprehensive theory is possible, I must disagree then, that these simple and straightforward trait approaches adequately explain or elaborate on many facets of my personality. I do not believe that my personality has remained constant, as I have had to change and do so frequently due to approval or criticism.   I believe that in moving to self-actualization, I not only go through psycho-social stages and crises, but idiosyncratic events (such as the death of a family member, a move, or any other significant change) has served to change me, as well. No one can gauge this in a simple theory, but to put it simply, the world changes me and I change the reality of the world around me.   Events that once made me happy may make my cynical and, conversely, what I was once cynical about I am now content with.   So, it is impossible to say that I was once a person with a happy and carefree personality and am now cynical or vice versa.   This all depends on the situation.   Also, my spirituality helps me to change the way I think and behave, in essence this is an ongoing change of my personality, as well.

Hepatitis B 2 Essay -- essays research papers

Hepatitis B can be prevented with a highly effective vaccine, but this year ten to thirty million people will become infected with the hepatitis B virus. I feel that because this disease is preventable, only knowledge can help reduce the number of people infected.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hepatitis B is a serious liver disease caused by the hepatitis B virus. This virus is a blood-borne pathogen. It is one hundred times more infectious than HIV. “Hepatitis B is one of the most frequently reported vaccine preventable diseases in the United States,'; according to the Centers for Disease Control. This disease is transmitted through oral, vaginal, and anal sex. You can also acquire the disease through sharing needles, toothbrushes, and razors, or if you come in contact with infected blood. For these reasons, the people at the highest risk of contracting the disease are: anyone who is sexually active; health, dental, and emergency workers; adoptive families with children form Asia, Africa, South America, Eastern and Mediterranean Europe (as these areas have a high number of people infected); drug users; and anyone in close contact with someone infected. This is not as scary as it seems, for you cannot contract the virus through sneezing, coughing, or holding hands. A surprising fact about hepatitis B, considering it is preventable, is that one in twenty people are or will be infected in their lifetime. There are one million people infected in the United Stat...

A Review of the Role of Soluble Fiber in Health with Specific Reference to Wheat Dextrin

Journal of International Medical Research http://imr. sagepub. com/ A Review of the Role of Soluble Fiber in Health with Specific Reference to Wheat Dextrin JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz and G Fotopoulos Journal of International Medical Research 2009 37: 1 DOI: 10. 1177/147323000903700101 The online version of this article can be found at: http://imr. sagepub. com/content/37/1/1 Published by: http://www. sagepublications. com Additional services and information for Journal of International Medical Research can be found at: Email Alerts: http://imr. agepub. com/cgi/alerts Subscriptions: http://imr. sagepub. com/subscriptions Reprints: http://www. sagepub. com/journalsReprints. nav Permissions: http://www. sagepub. com/journalsPermissions. nav >> Version of Record – Feb 1, 2009 What is This? Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 The Journal of International Medical Research 2009; 37: 1 – 17 A Review of the Role of Soluble Fiber in Health wit h Specific Reference to Wheat Dextrin JL SLAVIN1, V SAVARINO2, A PAREDES-DIAZ3* 1 AND G FOTOPOULOS4Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota, USA; 2 Department of Internal Medicine, Gastroenterology Unit, Genoa, Italy; 3Novartis Consumer Health, Parsippany, New Jersey, USA; 4Novartis Consumer Health, Nyon, Switzerland dextrin, based on a search of PubMed. The evidence suggests that soluble fibers help to regulate the digestive system, may increase micronutrient absorption, stabilize blood glucose and lower serum lipids, may prevent several gastrointestinal disorders, and have an accepted role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease.It is concluded that supplementation with soluble fibers (e. g. wheat dextrin) may be useful in individuals at risk of a lower than recommended dietary fiber intake. ACIDS; Dietary fiber is widely recognized to have a beneficial role in overall health, but only at adequate levels (25 – 38 g/day for he althy adults). Wheat dextrin in particular is a soluble fiber that can easily be added to the diet and is widely used in the food industry. There is some debate about whether increased intake of soluble fibers leads to health benefits.This paper reviews the evidence regarding the physiological effects and potential health benefits of the addition of soluble dietary fibers, with specific reference to wheat KEY WORDS: SOLUBLE FIBER; WHEAT DEXTRIN; SHORT-CHAIN FATTY PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS; HEALTH BENEFITS PREBIOTICS; Introduction Fiber, the indigestible part of plants such as cereals, fruits and vegetables (Table 1), has a fundamental role in the regulation of the digestive system and may help to prevent troublesome disorders such as constipation,1 – 3 diarrhea4 – 6 and irritable bowel syndrome. – 9 Fiber may also help to regulate the absorption of micronutrients,3,10,11 stabilize glucose12 – 14 and cholesterol levels,15 – 17 have a role in cardiovascu lar health18 – 20 and possibly help to prevent some forms of cancer. 21 – 23 *Current address: 90 Possum Way, New Providence, NJ 07974, USA. Many nutrition and healthcare professionals use the terms ‘soluble’ and ‘insoluble’ fibers for nutrition labeling. 24 – 27 Soluble fibers dissolve in water and usually form a gel.They are generally fermented by bacteria in the lower intestine, but they are indigestible and hence not absorbed into the bloodstream. 24,28 Soluble fibers also ferment to form short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) such as butyrate, acetate and propionate (Table 2). 17,29 – 34 Short-chain fatty acids generate approximately 1 – 2 kcal/g of ingested fiber, so are used as an energy source by the intestinal Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 1 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al.The health benefits of soluble fiber TABLE 1: Classification systems for fiber based on four different fibe r characteristics Dietary fibers Lignin (polyphenolic compound, in cell walls of woody plants and seeds) Cellulose (glucose polymer, in all plant cell walls) ? -Glucans (glucose polymers, in oats, barley) Hemicelluloses (polysaccharides, in plant cell walls) Pectins (viscous polysaccharides, in fruits and berries) Gums (viscous polysaccharides, in seeds; e. g. uar gum) Inulin and oligofructose (mixture of fructose chains, in plants such as onions) Resistant starch (starch in plant cell walls; inaccessible to human digestive enzymes; often found in bananas and legumes; may also be formed by food processing) Soluble fibers Wheat dextrin ? -Glucans Gums (e. g. guar gum, partially hydrolyzed guar gum) Mucilages (e. g. psyllium) Pectins Fructo-oligosaccharides Some hemicelluloses Sources: oat products, legumes (dry beans, peas, lentils) Fermentable fibers Wheat dextrin Pectins ? Glucans Guar gum Partially hydrolyzed guar gum Inulin and oligofructose Sources: oats, barley, fruits, vegetab les Viscous fibers Pectins ? -Glucans Some gums (e. g. guar gum) Mucilages (e. g. psyllium) Functional fibers Resistant dextrins (e. g. wheat dextrin) (indigestible polysaccharides formed when starch is heated and treated with enzymes; includes resistant maltodextrins) Psyllium (viscous mucilage, isolated from husks of psyllium seeds; also known as ispaghula husk) Chitin and chitosan (nondigestible carbohydrate from exoskeletons of crustaceans, e. . crabs, lobsters; deacetylation of chitin gives chitosan, a nondigestible glucosamine polymer) Fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS, short synthetic fructose) Polydextrose and polyols (synthetic polysaccharides used as bulking agents and sugar substitutes in foods) Insoluble fibers Cellulose Lignin Some pectins Some hemicelluloses Sources: wheat bran, some vegetables Non-fermentable fibers Cellulose Lignin Sources: cereal fibers rich in cellulose (e. g. wheat bran)Non-viscous fibers Cellulose Lignin Some hemicelluloses mucosa and are absorbed thr ough the colonic wall, where they are metabolized to produce energy or transported into the general circulation. 29 SCFAs also stimulate epithelial cell differentiation and proliferation. 29 Soluble fibers can also promote the growth of colonic Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 2 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiberTABLE 2: Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) produced by fermentable, soluble fiber17,29 – 34 Butyrate Widely recognized as the most significant acid in terms of its documented effects in the colon The preferred nutrient for the cells lining the colonic epithelium, in particular the distal colon and rectum The preferred substrate for colonocytes Positive effects on colonic mucosal growth, crypt cell proliferation, and early-response gene expression Acetate A fuel for skeletal and cardiac muscle, kidney and the brain A substrate for fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis Propionate Metabolized by the l iver Only SCFA that can be a major source of glucose (after metabolism, used for energy production) May play a role in cholesterol lowering bacterial flora (prebiotic effect). 35 – 37 Insoluble fibers, on the other and, do not dissolve in water, are generally less fermentable by colonic microflora and are indigestible,26 so pass through the intestines almost intact. Insoluble fibers have passive water-attracting properties that help to normalize large bowel function by acting like a sponge, pulling water into the stool and making it easier to pass. 38 They may also decelerate intestinal transit time, increase fecal weight through bulk action, delay glucose absorption and help to control and balance the pH in the intestines. 39,40 In the USA, the daily intake recommended by the American Dietetic Association (ADA) is 20 – 35 g fiber/day for healthy adults, and ‘age plus 5 g/day’ for children. 6 The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends > 25 g/day,41 whi le the British Nutrition Foundation recommends 12 – 24 g/day for healthy adults. 42 The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine established the Adequate Intake (AI) recommendation for fiber (both soluble and insoluble),24 which ranges from 19 to 38 g/day for children, depending on age, and from 25 to 38 g/day for healthy adults. The majority of people, however, do not seem to achieve the recommended daily intake of fiber, and women in general seem to consume lower amounts than men. 43,44 Wheat dextrin is a soluble fiber that has been widely used in the food industry because it has a low viscosity and so has a good consistency when added to water, beverages or soft food. 4 It is formed by heating wheat starch at high temperature, followed by enzymatic (amylase) treatment to form a resistant starch. 24,45 It qualifies as a dietary fiber because the non-digestible glucoside linkages (Fig. 1) lead to incomplete hydrolysation, so that only a small percentage of wheat dextrin is absorbed in the small intestine and the rest is slowly fermented in the large intestine. 3 This review aims to assess the evidence regarding the physiological effects and potential health benefits of supplementing the diet with soluble fibers, with specific reference to wheat dextrin. Data source The PubMed database (US National Library Downloaded from imr. sagepub. om by guest on March 27, 2013 3 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber CH2OH O OH O OH O CH2OH O OH HO O CH2 O OH O OH O OH CH2OH O OH O OH CH2OH O OH OH O OH OH O OH O OH HO 1:2 bond O O CH2OH O OH CH2OH O O OH OH O OH 1:3 bond CH2OH O OH O CH2 O OH O HO CH2OH O OH 1:6 bond O CH2 O H2 C O O CH2OH O CH2OH O OH O HO OH FIGURE 1: Chemical structure of wheat dextrin of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA) was searched (to July 2007) using the terms ‘wheat dextrin’ and ‘soluble fiber’, and studies were selected based on wh ether they evaluated the physiological or clinical effects of soluble fibers.Although this non-systematic approach limits the review in that a quantitative analysis was not performed, it does allow a general and potentially useful overview of the effects of supplementation with soluble fibers. Physiological effects of soluble fibers FERMENTABILITY In vitro fermentation of wheat dextrin, inulin and partially hydrolysed guar gum (PHGG), and analysis of the resulting SCFA production over a 24-h period17 revealed that all three fibers demonstrated detectable fermentability. Acetate was the main SCFA produced by all fibers, accounting for about 50% of the total SCFA. Over 24 h, wheat dextrin produced substantially more total SCFA, propionate and butyrate than PHGG, which consistently showed lower fermentability at all time points (Fig. 2A – 2C).To reduce gas production (which can be socially undesirable and cause uncomfortable bloating), extensive fermentation at 24 h is desirable , while fast fermentation (e. g. high values at 4 h) may be undesirable. The total amount of SCFA produced by wheat dextrin at 4 h was just over half the amount produced by glucose Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 4 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber A Concentration ( µmol/ml) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 B Concentration ( µmol/ml) 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 4 8 12 Time since start of fermentation (h) 24 0 4 8 12 Time since start of fermentation (h) 24 C Concentration ( µmol/ml) 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 4 8 12 Time since start of fermentation (h) 24 Wheat dextrin PHGG Inulin F97 GlucoseFIGURE 2: Analysis of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production following in vitro fermentation of wheat dextrin, partially hydrolysed guar gum (PHGG) inulin and glucose (positive control) over 24 h: (A) total SCFA production; (B) butyrate production; and (C) propionate production17 (positive control) and almost half the amount produced by inulin at the same time point (Fig. 2A). The fermentation of wheat dextrin, therefore, occurred slowly over 24 h, so its consumption was less likely to result in the gas production that can occur as a result of rapid fiber fermentation. composition towards a more beneficial distribution. 17,46 For example, the consumption of fructo-oligosaccharides led to an increase in fecal bifidobacteria,36,47,48 while ingestion of polydextrose resulted in a dosedependent decrease in bacteriodes and an increase in beneficial lactobacilli and bifidobacteria. 49 Administration of PHGG for 3 weeks increased the Lactobacillus spp count in feces. 0 Consumption of wheat dextrin led to a lower colonic pH, an increase in the fecal concentration of glucosidases, a statistically significant increase in the beneficial lactobacilli population and a statistically significant decrease in pathogenic Clostridium perfringens. 35 In another study, wheat dextrin increased the fecal concentration of glu cosidase;45,51 increased glucosidase activity is considered beneficial to the host and is linked to substrate fermentation leading to more SCFAs and lactic acid production. PREBIOTIC EFFECT The SCFAs produced by soluble fermentable fibers are moderately strong acids (pK 4. 8)29 and so they lower colonic pH. Lowering the pH in the large ntestine may support the growth of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli because they have a strong intrinsic resistance to acid and the lower pH may help to prevent the growth of pH-sensitive pathogenic bacteria such as clostridia. 30 Many soluble fermentable fibers have demonstrated a significant prebiotic effect and alter the intestinal microflora Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 5 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber EFFECT ON LAXATION AND REGULARITY The formation of SCFAs helps to improve laxation and regularity by increasing fecal bulk and weight and increasing the waterholding c apacity (and thus the hydration) of feces. 0,46 The increase in fecal bulk and weight results from the presence of fiber, the water that the fiber holds and the partial fermentation of the fiber, which increases the amount of bacteria in the feces. 52 Studies have confirmed that consumption of the soluble fibers inulin or oligofructose result in an increase in fecal weight,53 while inulin helped to reduce constipation2 and polydextrose increased fecal mass and sometimes stool frequency. 49,54 Consumption of psyllium significantly increased stool frequency and stool weight, increased stool water content, improved stool consistency, increased the frequency of bowel movements and reduced pain on defecation. 55 – 59 Wheat dextrin significantly increased dry fecal output by 70% (P < 0. 02) and wet fecal output by 45% (P < 0. 05) (Fig. 3). The increase in wet fecal output was due to increased dry matter output (38%) and increased water output (62%). IMPROVED NUTRIENT/MINERAL ABSORP TION Although dietary fibers are traditionally thought to decrease mineral absorption, animal models and human studies have demonstrated that soluble fermentable fibers appear to increase the absorption of certain minerals. 3,10,60 – 62 For example, soluble fibers may increase calcium absorption through the increased production of SCFAs, with an increase in the villus crypt height, number of epithelial cells per crypt, cecal vein flow and mucosal-to-serosal calcium fluxes and stimulation of the expression of calbindinD9K, thereby enhancing the active calcium transport route. 3 Soluble fibers may also increase the absorption of other minerals such as magnesium, zinc and iron. 3,10,11 Studies in rats showed that the absorption of calcium, magnesium and/or zinc may be enhanced by guar gum,64 inulin,10,65 oligofructose65 and PHGG. 11 In healthy men supplemented with either wheat dextrin or dextrose (100 g/day), ingestion of wheat dextrin significantly increased magnesium apparent absorption (50. 9%, P = 0. 001) and retention (30. 9 mg/day, P = 0. 024) and tended 80 P < 0. 02 70 60 Increase (%) 50 40 30 20 10 0 Wet fecal output FIGURE 3: Effect of wheat dextrin on fecal output3 Dry fecal output P < 0. 05 45% 70% Downloaded from imr. sagepub. om by guest on March 27, 2013 6 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber (not statistically significant) to increase calcium apparent absorption (37. 4%) and retention (111 mg/day) (Table 3). 3 prandial plasma glucose concentrations (–13 mg, P = 0. 04) and a significant reduction in the urinary excretion of glucose (P = 0. 008) compared with the low-fiber diet. 13 In fact, the effects of fiber on glucose concentrations are most evident in individuals with diabetes mellitus and it has been suggested that diabetics should consume 25 – 50 g/day of dietary fiber, with ? 55% of their calorie intake coming from carbohydrate. 4 To assess the effect of fiber on the risk for diabetes, more than 65 000 women (40 – 65 years of age) were followed for 6 years; it was found that dietary glycemic index and glycemic load were positively associated with the development of type 2 diabetes, and dietary fiber was inversely associated. 75 Beyond the effects of fiber on post-prandial glucose and insulin, fiber alters the responses and actions of the gut hormones gastric inhibitory peptide,76 glucagon-like peptide177 and cholecystokinin (CCK). 78 CCK is a peptide hormone and neurotransmitter that regulates gut motility, gall bladder contraction and pancreatic enzyme secretion and may mediate the post-prandial glycemic and insulinemic response to viscous fibers. A direct correlation has been reported between post-prandial CCK and subjective satiety scores following ingestion of foods with varying amounts of fiber. 79,80 DECREASED GLYCEMIA AND INSULINEMIAThrough the production of SCFAs, soluble fibers can stimulate pancreatic insulin release and affect liver con trol of glycogen breakdown,66,67 and so may be effective in decreasing blood glucose and insulin levels and improving glycemic and insulinemic indices. 68 Guar gum,69,70 inulin12 and dextrin71 were all found to improve postprandial glycemia. In healthy subjects, the glycemic index of wheat dextrin was 25% compared with dextrose and the insulin response with wheat dextrin was also low at 13% compared with dextrose. 14 Resistant dextrins led to reduced blood glucose concentrations and insulin secretion in rats after sucrose or maltose loading,72,73 reduced the post-prandial blood glucose concentrations in healthy men and women,13 and significantly reduced fasting blood glucose concentrations in type 2 diabetics. 6 In patients with type 2 diabetes given a diet high (25 g soluble plus 25 g insoluble fiber) or low (8 g soluble plus 16 g insoluble fiber) in total fiber, the high-fiber diet resulted in significantly lower pre- TABLE 3: Effect of wheat dextrin supplementation (100 g/day) on the absorption and retention of magnesium and calcium in healthy men3 Dextrose diet Calcium Apparent absorption, mean, mg/day (%) Retention, mean, mg/day Magnesium Apparent absorption, mean, mg/day (%) Retention, mean, mg/day 187 (28. 8) 39. 3 65 (30. 4) –0. 3 Wheat dextrin diet 269 (37. 4) 111 117 (50. 9) 30. 9 Statistical significance (P-value) 0. 093 0. 122 0. 001 0. 024 Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 7 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al.The health benefits of soluble fiber REDUCED CHOLESTEROL LEVELS The SFCAs can suppress cholesterol synthesis by the liver and may reduce serum levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and triglycerides. 81 Soluble, viscous fibers are also thought to exert their hypocholesterolemic action by increasing fecal sterol excretion and stimulating hepatic bile acid synthesis. 82,83 In a metaanalysis of 67 controlled trials, consumption of 2 – 10 g/day of fiber (i. e. pectin, oat bran, gua r gum, psyllium) reduced total cholesterol by 4% and LDL-C by 7% compared with placebo. 15 No significant effect was observed on serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and triacylglycerol concentrations.A greater reduction in serum total cholesterol and triacylglycerol concentrations was also noted in type 2 diabetics who consumed 60 g/day resistant dextrin compared with type 2 diabetics or healthy adults who consumed 30 g/day. 16 No difference was observed in the concentration of HDL-C. A diet high in total fiber (25 g soluble plus 25 g insoluble fiber) led to significantly reduced plasma total cholesterol (P = 0. 02), very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C) (P = 0. 01) and triglyceride (P = 0. 02) concentrations compared with a low-fiber diet, indicating that high fiber intake, especially soluble fiber, improves plasma lipid profile. 3 It has also been proposed that soluble fermentable fibers may lead to a reduction of cholesterol levels via the increased amo unts of propionate produced during their fermentation by the commensal bacteria, because propionate may inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis. 84 Fibers producing high amounts of SCFAs (particularly propionate), such as wheat dextrin, may help to sustain cholesterol levels within the normal range. 17 The cholesterol-lowering effects of wheat dextrin have been demonstrated in animal trials. 85 The findings suggest that its cholesterol-lowering effect is likely to be related to reduced cholesterol and bile salt absorption. However, not all soluble fibers are hypocholesterolemic agents; for example, oat bran has been shown to lower serum lipids while wheat bran did not. 81 IMMUNE FUNCTIONIt is possible that SCFAs help to improve immune function, as they stimulate the production of T helper cells, antibodies, leukocytes and splenocyte cytokines, all of which have a crucial role in immune protection. 86,87 In addition, SCFAs improve the barrier properties of the colonic mucosal layer, thus in hibiting inflammatory and adhesion irritants. 88 – 90 Lactic-acid-forming bacteria competitively inhibit and/or suppress the growth of pathogenic bacteria, and may have a positive influence on immune function. 91,92 WEIGHT REDUCTION Obesity is associated with increased energy intake and decreased consumption of fiberrich foods,93 while fiber intake is inversely associated with body weight and body fat. 94 – 97 Increasing daily fiber intake is an effective way of providing a satiating effect. 8 Dietary fiber also decreases gastric emptying and/or slows energy and nutrient absorption (a fiber-rich meal, which is also usually richer in micronutrients, is processed more slowly and nutrient absorption occurs over a greater period of time99), leading to lower post-prandial glucose and lipid levels. Furthermore, addition of dietary fiber to a low-calorie diet has been shown to lead to a significantly greater weight loss (8. 0 kg) compared with placebo (5. 8 kg). 100 When post -menopausal women consumed higher fiber diets, this was associated with significant weight loss. 101 A high Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 8 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber carbohydrate diet consumed ad libitum (i. e. elf-regulating), without energy restriction or change in energy intake, caused significant body weight and body fat losses in older men and women, with a significant decrease in thigh fat area (P = 0. 003). 102 A review of the effects of increased fiber (high-fiber foods or supplementation) on hunger, satiety, energy intake and body weight revealed that controlled energy intake with increased dietary fiber led to an increase in post-meal satiety and a decrease in subsequent hunger. 103 With ad libitum energy intake, increased dietary fiber (14 g/day) resulted in an average 10% decrease in energy intake and 1. 9 kg weight loss over 3. 8 months of intervention. The effects of increasing dieta ry fiber were reported to be greater in obese individuals.When evaluating the effects of 1 week of supplementation with soluble fiber (guar gum, 40 g/day) on hunger, satiety rating and energy intake, mean daily energy intake decreased significantly from 6. 7 to 5. 4 MJ, while hunger and satiety scores did not change. 104 Long-term (4 – 5 weeks) assessment of wheat dextrin (30 or 45 g/day) supplementation demonstrated a trend towards better weight maintenance; compared with baseline, body weight was increased in the control group supplemented with pure absorbable maltodextrin (+0. 87 kg; P = 0. 07), whereas body weight remained stable in the wheat dextrin-treated groups (+0. 0 kg). 35 sometimes stool frequency. 9,54 Psyllium significantly increased stool frequency and stool weight, increased stool water content, improved stool consistency, increased the frequency of bowel movements and reduced pain on defecation. 55 – 59 Administration of PHGG for 3 weeks increased the frequency of defecation (+0. 17 /day), increased fecal moisture (+5%) and decreased fecal pH. 50 Supplementation with PHGG also helped to reduce the use of laxatives (from an average of 2. 0 to 0. 2 doses/day). 105 Wheat dextrin (100 g/day) had a positive effect on fecal output in healthy men,3 with an average 45% increase in wet fecal weight (P < 0. 05) and 70% increase in dry fecal output (P < 0. 02) (Fig. 3). DIARRHEA Increased intake of soluble fiber may enhance recovery and improve stool consistency in diarrhea. ,5,106 – 109 Persistent diarrhea resolved in more children taking PHGG (84%) compared with those on the control diet (62%) (odds ratio 3. 12), while the duration of diarrhea was reduced and there was a trend towards reduction in daily stool weight that reached significance on days 4 – 7. 6 Compared with non-fiber control in children, PHGG significantly reduced the mean frequency of diarrhea (8. 8% versus 32. 0%; P = 0. 001), resulted in significantly fewer days with diarrhea per total feeding days (10. 8% versus 31. 5%; P < 0. 001) and led to a significantly lower mean diarrhea score (4. 8 versus 9. 4; P < 0. 001). 110 PHGG also suppressed diarrhea caused by the ingestion of high levels of non-digestible sugar substitutes. 11 In elderly patients with diarrhea, 4-week supplementation with soluble dietary fiber (7 g/day) significantly reduced the water content of feces (P < 0. 01), the fecal pH (P < 0. 05) and the frequency of daily bowel movements (P < 0. 05). 5 In addition, the fecal characteristics improved The role of soluble fiber in disease CONSTIPATION Increased daily fiber intake can ameliorate constipation. 40,49,52 – 59 Consumption of inulin or oligofructose was shown to increase fecal weight,53 inulin reduced constipation2 and polydextrose increased fecal mass and Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 9 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al.The health benefits of soluble fiber and the tota l level of SCFAs increased significantly (P < 0. 05). 5 In patients with fecal incontinence, significantly fewer incontinent stools were observed in those who consumed dietary fiber (psyllium or gum arabic) than those receiving placebo. 4 Improvements in fecal incontinence or stool consistency did not appear to be related to unfermented dietary fiber. However, the effects of increased soluble fiber on diarrhea are inconclusive, as a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials found no evidence that dietary fiber was effective in treating diarrhea. 112 randomized studies would be useful to confirm the potentially beneficial effects of soluble fiber in IBS.DIVERTICULOSIS A diet low in fiber is thought to play a role in the pathogenesis of diverticular disease. 114 Increasing dietary fiber produces bulky, soft stools, facilitating defecation and reducing intracolonic pressure. 114 Increased fiber also helps to promote regular bowel function and is important in controlling and minimi zing diverticular disease. 115 – 117 Non-viscous soluble fiber is associated with a decreased risk of diverticular disease and an improvement of bowel pain. 115 In patients with diverticulosis, it is recommended that patients consume 20 – 35 g/day of fiber either through the diet or supplementation. 118 IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROMETreatment for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is aimed at alleviating symptoms. In patients with mild symptoms, fiber supplementation (particularly non-gelling soluble fibers) may help to relieve the severity and frequency of IBS symptoms, including abdominal pain, spasms or distension/tension, bowel dysfunction (e. g. fluctuation between constipation and diarrhea) and flatulence. 8,9,113 PHGG was better tolerated than wheat bran and more readily accepted by IBS patients, resulting in an improved quality of life during the treatment period. 113 PHGG also had a positive effect on evacuation frequency with a decrease in the frequency of IBS symptoms such as flatulence, abdominal tension and abdominal spasm. 13 Based on its physiological properties, wheat dextrin may also help to alleviate gastrointestinal symptoms associated with IBS through increased fecal output,3 enhanced prebiotic capabilities35,45 and significant but slow fermentation in the lower intestine, producing high concentrations of SCFAs but lower amounts of gas, which could be an important aspect in relieving the discomfort caused by IBS. 17 However, double-blind, HEMORRHOIDS A low-fiber diet is thought to contribute to the etiology of hemorrhoids. 119 Increasing the fiber content in the diet can have a beneficial effect in the treatment of symptomatic hemorrhoids. 120,121 A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that increased fiber reduced the risk of bleeding and decreased the rate of recurrence of hemorrhoids,120 while a Cochrane review found that the risk of not improving hemorrhoids and having persisting symptoms decreased by 53% with increased intake of fiber, with a significant reduction in bleeding. 121CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE A number of studies have consistently found that a fiber-enriched diet (14 g fiber/1000 kcal energy) is associated with a significant reduction (16 – 33%) in the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). 19,20,122 – 126 A pooled analysis of studies evaluating dietary fiber Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 10 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber intake in the USA and Europe indicated that each 10 g/day increase in total fiber intake was associated with a 14% decrease in the risk of coronary events (e. g. myocardial infarction), and a 24% decrease in deaths from CHD. 9 A study on the relationship between dietary fiber and risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) among women over a 10-year period showed that the ageadjusted relative risk for major CVD was 0. 53 for women consuming the highest amount of fiber (22. 9 g/day) compared with thos e on the lowest fiber intake (11. 5 g/day). 125 Although few interventional studies have specifically assessed fiber intake on the risk of CVD, increased fiber has been shown to ameliorate some of the risk factors for CVD (e. g. high cholesterol levels, high blood pressure, obesity and diabetes). For example, fiber can significantly reduce blood cholesterol levels and so may be important to cardiovascular health. 5,16,81,127 Consuming foods rich in viscous soluble fibers has been shown to reduce blood levels of LDL-C by 10 – 15%, with an expected reduction in CVD events of 10 – 15%, and it has been stated that a diet including 5 – 10 g/day of viscous soluble fiber reduces CVD events and death independent of baseline risk. 18 Although the cholesterol-lowering effect of soluble (especially viscous) fibers probably contributes the most to its cardioprotective effects, other mechanisms are likely to play a role. As part of a lifestyle modification program, fiber can help to reduce blood pressure significantly,128 supporting research that found that highfiber intake was inversely associated with the risk of high blood pressure or hypertension. 129,130 Two intervention trials found that increased fiber intake resulted in significant reductions in blood pressure compared with placebo. 31,132 In an analysis of the association between nutrient intake and risk of stroke, dietary fiber was inversely correlated to the incidence of stroke, a relationship that was stronger in hypertensive than normotensive men. 133 Fiber is also effective at reducing the risk of diabetes and, thus, the risk of developing CVD, and can improve glycemic and insulinemic indices12,14,69 – 71 and decrease blood glucose and insulin levels. 13,16,72 Lowfiber, high-glycemic load diets are associated with higher serum triglyceride levels and lower HDL-C levels, which are risk factors for CVD. 134,135 Increased fiber consumption may also help control body weight and support a weight reduction program by helping to reduce obesity and, possibly, the associated risk of CVD. 94 – 104 Safety aspects of fiber supplementationReduced absorption of trace elements has traditionally been proposed as a potential negative effect of dietary fiber intake;136,137 however, it is unlikely that healthy adults who consume fiber in amounts within the recommended ranges will have problems with nutrient absorption. In fact, clinical data demonstrate that soluble fibers (e. g. inulin, fructo-oligosaccharides, wheat dextrin) may positively affect the absorption of certain minerals. 3,10,11,64,65 Fermentation of dietary fiber by anaerobic bacteria in the large intestine produces gas (including hydrogen, methane and carbon dioxide), which may be related to complaints of distention or flatulence, especially with high intakes of fiber. An increase in dietary fiber should also be accompanied by an increase in fluid intake, and fiber should be increased gradually to allow th e gastrointestinal tract time to adapt.Normal laxation may be achieved with relatively small amounts of dietary Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 11 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber fiber, and the smallest intake that results in normal laxation should be used. 138 Nevertheless, wheat dextrin has been shown to be well tolerated even up to the relatively high intake of 45 g/day. 51 Higher daily intakes (60 and 80 g) resulted in greater flatulence (P < 0. 05) and some bloating compared with placebo, but no intake resulted in diarrhea. fiber can have beneficial effects on constipation, diarrhea and the symptoms of IBS.Soluble fiber also has additional positive effects on cardiovascular health, leading to a significant risk reduction of CHD. Thus, this review of the physiological effects and subsequent health benefits of soluble fibers suggests that daily fiber supplementation could be beneficial in those individ uals who are at risk of inadequate fiber in their diet. Most servings of common foods contain between 1 and 3 g of dietary fiber so it may be difficult to consume the recommended amounts of fiber. Dietary assessment programs can estimate fiber intake for different population groups, allowing the identification of groups that have deficient fiber intake.At an individual level, fiber intake can be generally estimated based on servings of fruits, vegetables and whole grains having 2 g of dietary fiber per serving, and servings of legumes having 5 g of dietary fiber per serving. Values from high-fiber cereals or fiber supplements can be added to these totals. Wheat dextrin is one example of a soluble fiber supplement that has been shown to help normalize bowel function and is well tolerated, even at large intakes. It is slowly but extensively fermented, leading to a significantly high production of SCFAs, while its slow fermentation profile could help minimize the undesirable effects of gas production and flatulence. Wheat dextrin has also demonstrated enhanced prebiotic capabilities when used at an intake of 30 – 45 g/day.Based on its physiological properties, supplementation with wheat dextrin should be useful in individuals that need to complete their dietary intake with a fiber in order to achieve the daily recommended dietary levels of fiber. Conclusion Review of the evidence indicates that soluble, fermentable fibers, including wheat dextrin, have positive physiological effects that may help to improve bowel regularity and result in some health benefits. Soluble fibers are fermented in the large intestine, leading to the production of SCFAs that lower colonic pH and result in a significant prebiotic effect in which the growth of beneficial intestinal microflora (e. g. ifidobacteria, lactobacilli) and fecal glucosidase concentrations are increased, while the growth of pH-sensitive pathogenic bacteria (e. g. clostridia) is prevented or suppressed. In th is way, SCFAs could promote normal bowel regularity and may help to reduce serum glucose and cholesterol levels. SCFAs also positively influence the absorption and retention of certain micronutrients (e. g. calcium, magnesium, zinc), and may improve immune function by stimulating the production of immunoprotective factors (e. g. T helper cells, antibodies) and improving the barrier properties of the colonic mucosal layer. Soluble fibers that are slowly yet extensively fermented in the large intestine (e. g. heat dextrin) are tolerated more easily than those that ferment quickly, as the latter can produce larger amounts of gas in a shorter period of time, leading to bloating and flatulence. By improving digestive balance, regularity and hydration in the gut, soluble Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 12 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber Acknowledgments Editorial support was given by Deborah Nock, DPP-Cordell Lt d, Saxthorpe, UK. Funding for the review was provided by Novartis Consumer Health, Nyon, Switzerland. Conflicts of interest Alberto Paredes-Diaz and Grigorios Fotopoulos were Novartis Consumer Health, employees at the time of manuscript preparation.The other authors had no conflicts of interest to declare in relation to this article. †¢ Received for publication 8 September 2008 †¢ Accepted subject to revision 9 September 2008 †¢ Revised accepted 11 December 2008 Copyright  © 2009 Field House Publishing LLP References 1 Cummings JH: The effect of dietary fiber on fecal weight and composition. In: CRC Handbook of Dietary Fiber in Human Nutrition (Spiller GA, ed), 2nd edn. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1993; pp 263 – 349. 2 Kleessen B, Sykura B, Zunft HJ, et al: Effects of inulin and lactose on fecal microflora, microbial activity, and bowel habit in elderly constipated persons. 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Lissner L, Lindroos AK, Sjostrom L: Swedish obese subjects (SOS): an obesity intervention study with a nutritional perspective. Eur J Clin Nutr 1998; 52: 316 – 322. Kimm S: The role of dietary fiber in the development and treatment of childhood obesity. Pediatr 1995; 96: 1010 – 1014. AlfieriM, Pomerleau J, Grace DM, et al: Fiber intake of normal weight, moderately obese and severely obese subjects. Obes Res 1995; 3: 541 – 547. Nelson LH, Tucker LA: Diet composition related to body fat in a multivariate study of 293 men. J Am Diet Assoc 1996; 96: 771 – 777. Kromhout D, Bloemberg B, Seidell JC, et al: Physical activity and dietary fiber determine population body fat levels: the Seven Countries Study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2001; 25: 301 – 306. Slavin J, Green H: Dietary fibre and satiety. Nutr Bull 2007; 32: 32 – 42. 99 Jenkins DJ, Wolever TM, Rao AV, et al: Effect on blood lipids of very high intakes of fiber in diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol. 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Circulation 1992; 86: 1475 – 1484. 130 Ascherio A, Hennekens C, Willett WC, et al: Prospective study of nutritional factors, blood pressure, and hypertension among US women. Hypertension 1996; 27: 1065 – 1072. 31 Keenan JM, Pins JJ, Frazel C, et al: Oat ingestion reduces systolic and diastolic blood pressure in patients with mild or borderline hypertension: a pilot trial. J Fam Pract 2002; 51: 369. 132 He J, Streiffer RH, Muntner P, et al: Effect of dietary fiber intake on blood pressure: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Hypertens 2004; 22: 73 – 80. 133 Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Hernan MA, et al: Intake of potassium, magnesium, calcium, and fiber and risk of stroke among US men. Circulation 1998; 98: 1198 – 1204. 134 Ford ES, Liu S: Glycemic index and serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration among US adults. 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Police Departments’ Use of Racial Profiling Essay

Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The concept and practice of racial profiling by the law enforcement agencies specifically, the police, has drawn the attention and concern of the public including the government. Racial profiling is defined as â€Å"the practice of targeting individuals for police or security interdiction, detention or other disparate treatment based primarily on their race or ethnicity in the belief that certain minority groups are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior† (Laney, 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another definition proposed by Hernandez-Murillo and Knowles is that it is a statistical discrimination as a tool to predict criminality and would search more intensely the minorities than if they were of a different race. Thus, the discretion to enforce or not enforce the laws or policies based on categories or race of people have ill effects on those individuals involved including affecting the public’s perception in a negative way (Pruitt, n.d.). It casts doubt to the legitimacy and fairness of the criminal justice system and destroys the trust of the people in the law enforcement. It creates negative stereotypes who limit efforts in attaining societal justice (Pruitt, n.d.). Moreover, besides creating erroneous perceptions about the different races, it also creates misconceptions about the police. Discrimination by a few in the police force is magnified as to be a brand label to all. This demoralizes the many who are fair and do their jobs with honor and dedication. Direct effects are seen on the targeted group, for instance African Americans and Hispanics change their driving habits because they perceived to be the target group in traffic stops (U.S. Congress, 2000). The members of the targeted group become uncooperative and develop disdain and contempt of the police (Pruitt, n.d.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Racial profiling for some is appropriate and justified. They believe that it is a â€Å"sensible, statistically based tool that enables law enforcement to focus their energies more efficiently and it also   lowers the cost of obtaining and processing information and thus reduces the overall cost of policing† (Kennedy, 2000). They further claim that the police are justified in scrutinizing more a particular sector or race if in the place where they are assigned, the members of this sector commit a disproportionate numbers of crimes. Similarly, they scrutinize men more than women. The basis for defending racial profiling as appropriate is centered upon its being empirical and statistical. Moreover, it is claimed that racial profiling prevents crime considering that by identifying the drivers at night time would deprive a potential criminal of anonymity (Garlikov, 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Those who argue against racial profiling base their dissent on constitutional and practical grounds (Kennedy, 1999). Racial distinctions are opposed mainly on the violation of the Fourteenth Amendment—the equal protection clause. Even the courts in exercise of judicial review, have applied ‘strict scrutiny’ enunciating that the use of race in government decision-making gives rise to a presumption of violation of an individual’s civil rights (Kennedy, 1999). â€Å"The use of race in governmental decision making may be upheld only if it serves a compelling government objective and only if it is ‘narrowly tailored’ to advance that objective† (Garlikov, 2000). An analysis of court decisions would reveal that disparate treatment is allowed in making stops provided that race is not the sole factor in doing this (Garlikov, 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On practical consideration, the argument against racial profiling is based on the alienation that it creates. Alienation on the part of the race singled out creates distrust and even hatred towards the police and other elements of the criminal justice system. In so doing, witnesses refuse to cooperate with the police in the investigation (Garlikov, 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The different methods of research employed in racial profiling are the baseline data and the benchmark data (RCMP web site, 2007). The benchmark data, i.e. census-based data, is derived from information that one gathers by stopping drivers. The use of stop data is being employed by more or less 4,000 different agencies in the country (Lamberth, Clayton, Lamberth, Farrell and McDevitt, 2005). Benchmarking data â€Å"determines the right percentage of those stopped ought to be† (Lamberth, Clayton, Lamberth, Farrell and McDevitt, 2005). The benchmark data is compared with the stop data to find out if those stopped by the police are mostly from the minorities based on race or ethnicity. There are two kinds of benchmark data employed to respond to different issues. External benchmarking is â€Å"designed to determine what percentage of drivers in a given area â€Å"ought to be† stopped (Lamberth, Clayton, Lamberth, Farrell and McDevitt, 2005). Internal benchmarking on the other hand is a method of comparing the stop data of an officer with those of other officers who are similarly situated (Lamberth, Clayton, Lamberth, Farrell and McDevitt, 2005). This seeks to identify the differences in the stop practices of the police officers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The baseline data or the baseline comparison data uses comparisons and statistical samplings to determine the demographics of the population. Most often the police agencies employ the services of researchers (Davis, 2001). This is preferred than the benchmark data however, it is more time consuming and it entails expense (RCMP web site, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The move to conduct racial profiling studies and in some states, investigation and inquiry into the different departments’ practices, has spurred both negative and positive impact on police officers. In a study conducted, it revealed a marked decrease in the number of arrests (Cleary, 2000). This means that focus was made on more serious offenses and therefore, searches and arrests productivity improved.   On the downside, it impacted on the police officers’ morale. Most felt that their integrity is put in issue and as a result a personal injustice to them. This reduced police aggressiveness. By and large, this caused demoralization (Cleary, 2000). Legal Perspective of Racial Profiling and Developments   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Racial profiling violates the Constitution, specifically the Amendments and federal statutes. The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments proscribe discrimination on the part of federal, state and local law enforcement agencies. The Fourth Amendment guarantees protection against unlawful search and seizure (Cleary, 2000). It has been held by the court that traffic/vehicle stops initiated by law enforcement violates the Fourth Amendment unless there is probable cause (Wren v. U.S., 116 S. Ct. 1769 (1996). Moreover, the Court ruled that these vehicle stops are most often a pretext for a search and this circumvents the Constitutional guarantee.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It also violates federal statutes such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968. Any agency that receives financial assistance from the federal government is prohibited from discriminatory acts based on color, race or origin (Cleary, 2000). The Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 prohibit discriminatory acts based on color, race or origin and religion when committed by agencies receiving federal financial assistance. However, the Attorney General was given the power to prosecute those who discriminate regardless of whether they receive funding from the federal government (Cleary, 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   State laws may not be as effective to prevent racial profiling (Cleary, 2000). For instance in Memphis, vehicle stops are usual because of the drug problem in that area. Its location is ideal for drug traffickers and heroine and cocaine are actually transported in private vehicles (Cleary, 2000). By reason of the public uproar, Public Chapter 910 program was launched including a proposed Senate Bill 2214 which required traffic highway patrol officer to gather data and information for every vehicle stop (Cleary, 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In 2000, ‘Law Enforcement Trust and Integrity Act of 1999’ was introduced in the 106th Congress as House Bill No. 2656 (Library of Congress web site, n.d.). It seeks to amend the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 which provided among others the prevention of police misconduct and the initiation of studies to remedy issues that pervade the law enforcement agencies. It also punishes those who deprive one â€Å"of a right, privilege, or immunity secured or protected by the Constitution or laws of the United States† (Section 601 (b) (1), H.B. 2656).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Numerous bills were proposed to eliminate racial profiling and the latest of which was ‘End Racial Profiling Act of 2001. There was a hearing on this proposed bill as called for by the Senate Subcommittee on the Constitution, Federalism and Property Rights of the Judiciary Committee during the 107th Congress (Laney, 2004). It required that â€Å"any state or governmental unit that applied for funding under a covered federal program would have had to certify that program participants had effective policies and procedures to eliminate racial profiling and to stop practices that encouraged racial profiling† (Laney, 2004). The proposed bill however, failed to outline the specific disciplinary procedures for those who violated the provisions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The House Committee on Government Reform, on the other hand proposed the use of technology to eliminate racial profiling, i.e. video technologies (Laney, 2004). In the 108th Congress, there was no hearing scheduled on racial profiling. A bill was proposed specifically, ‘End Racial Profiling Act of 2004,’ however the bill never became a law. References Cleary, W. Racial Profiling Studies in Law Enforcement: Issues and Methodology Minnesota House of Representatives 2000. Retrieved November 24, 2007, from   http://www.house.leg.state.mn.us/hrd/pubs/raceprof.pdf. Davis, R. Racial Profiling: â€Å"What Does the Data Mean?† A Practitioner’s Guide to Understanding Data Collection & Analysis. AELE Law Enforcement web site. Retrieved on November 24, 2007, from http://www.aele.org/data.html Garlikov, R. The Concept of Racial Profiling. Retrieved on November 24, 2007, from http://www.garlikov.com/philosophy/profiling.htm Hernandez-Murillo, R. and Knowles, J. â€Å"Racial profiling or racist policing: bounds test in aggregate data† International Economic Review, August 2004. House Bill No. 2656. Library of Congress. Retrieved on November 23, 2007, from http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c106:H.R.2656.IH: Kennedy, R. â€Å"Suspect Policy.† The New Republic 13 Sept. 1999. Lamberth, K., Clayton, J., Lamberth, J., Farrell, A., and McDevitt, J. Practioner’s Guide for Addressing Racial Profiling. Retrieved on November 23, 2007, from http://www.lamberthconsulting.com/about-racialprofiling/documents/Report_PractitionersGuide.pdf. Laney, G., Racial Profiling: Issues and Federal Legislative Proposals and Options, CRS Report for Congress 2004. Retrieved November 23, 2007, from http://www.law.umaryland.edu/marshall/crsreports/crsdocuments/RL32231_02172004.pdf Library of Congress. â€Å"Traffic Stops Statistics Study Act of 2000.† House Report 106-517. 106 Congress 2d Session. 13 March 2000. Pruitt, T.   Ã‚  From Anecdotes to Analysis: A Look into Racial Profiling in Memphis Traffic Stops. Retrieved on November 23, 2007, from http://rhodes.edu/images/content/Academics/Tim_Pruitt.pdf. Royal Canadian Mounted Police web site 2007. Racial Profiling in the United States. Retrieved on November 23, 2007, from http://www.rcmpgrc.gc.ca/ccaps/racial_profiling_goff_e.htm   

Free Essays on Sex Education in High School

, it is about learning how we grow, reproduce and change over the years. It also includes a positive view of sex and the safety involved on sexuality. Regarding to the importance of sex education, I want to state my stand here that I strongly agree that "High schools must provide young people with adequate sex education because ignorance can be harmful". Sex education in high schools helps young people to be more prepared for life changes such as puberty, menopause and aging. Sex education can develop skills and self esteem to help students enter adolescence. It helps them in knowing that the sudden few changes are okay and normal. For example, girls would not get shocked, panic and afraid at their first menstruation once they already had the knowledge about it. Young people can also learn to appreciate and recognize their own sex: bodies just as good, beautiful and special as other God's perfect creations. Moreover, it delivers confidence on them to value themselves and others. Sex education helps them understand the place of sexuality in human life and loving other people. They will learn to enjoy their sexuality, behave responsibly within their sexual and personal relationships. Youngsters are usually very curious to know all new things that came up to them especially abstract things such as sex. Despite tha... Free Essays on Sex Education in High School Free Essays on Sex Education in High School The largest gulf of understanding still remains between the parents and the youth especially in the area of sexuality. Sex is a natural part of life, and when questions arise, they can be discussed in a matured way without condoning certain behavior. Relying to that, we realize that sex education is important to be inserted in a person's life. Therefore, sex education in high schools is very necessary for youngsters to acquire information, form attitudes, beliefs and values about identity, relationships and intimacy. Sex education also encompasses sexual development, affection, body image and gender roles. In other words, it is about learning how we grow, reproduce and change over the years. It also includes a positive view of sex and the safety involved on sexuality. Regarding to the importance of sex education, I want to state my stand here that I strongly agree that "High schools must provide young people with adequate sex education because ignorance can be harmful". Sex education in high schools helps young people to be more prepared for life changes such as puberty, menopause and aging. Sex education can develop skills and self esteem to help students enter adolescence. It helps them in knowing that the sudden few changes are okay and normal. For example, girls would not get shocked, panic and afraid at their first menstruation once they already had the knowledge about it. Young people can also learn to appreciate and recognize their own sex: bodies just as good, beautiful and special as other God's perfect creations. Moreover, it delivers confidence on them to value themselves and others. Sex education helps them understand the place of sexuality in human life and loving other people. They will learn to enjoy their sexuality, behave responsibly within their sexual and personal relationships. Youngsters are usually very curious to know all new things that came up to them especially abstract things such as sex. Despite tha...

Report writing for consultants - Emphasis

Report writing for consultants Report writing for consultants The last few weeks have been a punishing combination of late-night problem solving and early-morning meetings. Finally, the consultation period is over and the moment of truth has arrived: the time has come to write your final report. You have probably spent a lot of time with your client and may have built up a strong relationship – but this does not change the fact that leaving the right impression will depend ultimately on the quality of your report. So, whatever you do, don’t leave the report until the very last minute, without time for enough preparation and planning to do it real justice. But before we look at some guidelines on how to produce a document that will be a glowing testament to your firm’s experience and expertise, it is worth pausing for a minute to put your report in context. Our research has shown that mountains of paperwork stifle most companies: the average manager claims to receive eight reports or other long documents each day. This roughly equates to being asked to wade through War and Peace five times a year – a sobering thought. To put it plainly, your report is going to have to be pretty good to compete with all the other documents that will be vying for your client’s attention. Yes, your client may have made a substantial investment in employing your services, which might push your report further up the queue, but then, of course, the flip side of this will be that their expectations will be so much higher. Your firm might be expert in its area but this expertise will be lost if you fail to communicate it effectively. And you will simply become one of the many thousands of people who regularly spend hours struggling to write a turgid business document that nobody will read. So what can you do to make sure that your report goes to the top of the pile, makes a lasting impression and demonstrates your firm’s proficiency and understanding? What the client wants First things first. Your report should be client-centred, rather than consultant-centred. The chances are that no sooner do you realise that the report deadline is looming, then you immediately fall into the ‘getting it done’ trap. Your focus now is on yourself and ‘getting it done’ rather than on the client and their needs. At this point, it is worth taking a couple of deep breaths and spending a few minutes thinking about what your client actually wants. This may sound obvious. Indeed it should be – and yet so often reports tend to follow a standard template structure that poorly reflects an individual client’s brief. Why not ask the client exactly what they want to see in the report and even how long they would like the report to be? Alternatively, ask yourself a few simple but telling questions. What information does the client expect? With what level of detail? How much knowledge do they already have? What will they use the report for? Who will read it? And it goes without saying that the old copy and paste technique needs to be handled with extreme care. It is all too easy to forget to change the company name or to leave out a vital piece of client-specific information. Key messages And what about the key messages and recommendations that you want to get across? How can you make sure that these really stand out and are not lost among volumes of periphery detail and background? Many consultants use a basic structure in which they start with their findings, then outline their conclusions, and then give their main message – their recommendations – at the end. The effect on the client is to keep them guessing or arguing with every point and perhaps ending with a conclusion that differs from your own. A far more effective structure is to start with your main message and then provide the information that supports it. Avoid jargon and ‘businessese’ Then comes the next common trap: falling into jargon or business speak, or using unnecessarily flowery language. This, many people believe, demonstrates knowledge, intellect and know-how, or even superior industry expertise. But does it really? The truth is that your client has no interest whatsoever in the sophistication of your use of vocabulary. What’s more, the public and private sectors are becoming increasingly cynical about consultants, believing that they produce overlong, overwritten reports on purpose to justify their ‘exorbitant fees’. Whatever you do, avoid providing any additional ammunition to that particular argument. The bottom line is that clients will not appreciate long words, complicated language, management speak and ‘businessese’ jargon, nor will they want to plough through lots of acronyms and abbreviations. They will find them irritating, confusing and time consuming. Take the time to find a more effective way of writing whatever it is you want to say. If using complex technical terms is absolutely unavoidable, make sure you provide a glossary in the appendix. Humans or robots? On the subject of language, remember that when companies and organisations appoint consultants, they hire people, not robots. Language like ‘It is recommended’, ‘It is estimated†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢, or ‘It has been proven†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ does not sound more professional; it simply depersonalises your report and makes it less accessible. Your client wants to know that their consultants are real human beings, so be bold and put people at the heart of your writing: ‘We recommend†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢, ‘We estimate or ‘We have proven†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢. It is far more interesting and meaningful to read about organisations and individuals taking actions than to read about all sorts of actions and events mysteriously occurring. Think ‘Tarvex’s customers are crying out for the new product range’ rather than ‘The new product range has experienced considerable demand’. Or ‘The CEO has transformed the company’s performance in the exports market’ instead of ‘The company’s performance in the exports market has been transformed’. Make your language as lively as you can. If you are trying to ‘sell’ a particular recommendation, paint a vivid picture of the excellent results it will bring; or of the horrendous pitfalls that will befall your poor client as a result of not implementing it. And it goes without saying that you also need to examine all the pros and cons, including the cost implications, of following – or not following – your recommendations. Count your words Generalisations or exaggerations are another characteristic of poor writing to be wary of. Take ‘record levels of profit’, for example. Are they truly record levels – ie. the highest ever – or do you really mean the highest in recent years? And what about ‘a large percentage’? (Is this 51 per cent or 99 per cent? There’s quite a big difference, after all.) Beware of words and expressions such as ‘record’, ‘significant’, ‘considerable’and ‘wide section of the community’ unless you can actually quantify them. Painful punctuation It has been very difficult to escape the recent newspaper headlines about the woeful state of young people’s literacy. School and university leavers are, we are told, virtually incapable of writing a properly constructed sentence or presenting a coherent and logical argument, never mind using the correct punctuation, grammar and spelling. A university degree, it seems, no longer guarantees the kind of literacy that blue chip employers expect. Despite, or perhaps because of, this sorry state of affairs, we are a nation of language aficionados. Countdown attracts millions of viewers every day; we are obsessed with crosswords and wordplay; Eats Shoots and Leaves, a book about punctuation for goodness sake, dominated the bestseller list for months. My point here is this. We notice words and language and how people use them; pulling up people for poor punctuation, dodgy spelling or dubious grammar is almost a national pastime. And the likelihood is that your client will have a similar awareness of language – and irritation with its misuse. So never delude yourself that it is only what you say that counts and not whether you know how to punctuate correctly. It is amazing the bad feeling and ill will that a misplaced comma or a misjudged apostrophe can cause. Navigation tactics Another common error is to try to plan and structure the report simultaneously. It is, in fact, much easier to do these two things separately. Start by ‘brainstorming’ all the information that needs to go into the report. When you are sure you have covered everything, it is time to tackle the issue of what goes where and in what format. The structuring process requires an element of bloody-mindedness. Only information that is essential to your client should go in the main body of the text; any information that is ‘important’ or ‘of interest’ should be relegated to appendices, footnotes or a separate chapter. Additional detail, figures, references or diagrams are all examples of ‘important’ information. Put yourself in your client’s shoes. How would you react to a report if you felt your valuable time was being wasted on nonessential detail? Remember that while your client may be interested in the background to the project and in how you carried out the research and the consultation process, they are actually paying you to identify the cause or causes of a problem or challenge and to tell them how to solve it. If you make them wait until the end of the report to tell them your recommendations, the chances are that their patience will be wearing very thin indeed. This brings us to another tip on helping your client to navigate your report. As you start to structure your report, plan how best to divide it into logical sections and give some thought to your subheadings. Subheadings should be clear and meaningful, rather than generic, so that they act as signposts, guiding your client through the report and showing them where to find specific topics. Executive summary Pay particular attention to your executive summary. As we all know, this may be the only part the real decision-makers read, so make sure it can stand alone and that it contains real information, including hard facts and figures. If your report includes recommendations, the executive summary should make it clear what these are and include their implications, values and costs. What about length? As a general rule, it is advisable to stick to a maximum of two pages, using headings and bullets (but not too many), and perhaps a carefully selected graph or pie chart, to get your main message across. A final word If your report is well-written, it will influence your client’s thinking and decisions and galvanise them into action. It will also act as a first-rate marketing tool for your firm. But if your report is poorly written, it will exasperate your client and jeopardise your reputation and the chances of your recommendations being implemented. It might even lose you the business. The value of a well-written consultant’s report is perhaps best summed up by the MD of one of the UK’s leading radio stations when asked recently about his own personal experience of consultants: ‘One particular US consultant charged a fortune for producing a series of badly presented and poorly written reports critiquing the station and, frankly, stating the obvious,’ he said. ‘But then I hired McKinsey who worked with me to formulate our 10-year strategy and I learned a lot from them, including how to present an argument and rationale on paper, which is key if you want to be successful in influencing people’s thinking.’ Robert Ashton is Chief Executive of Emphasis. Want to improve your teams report writing? See our report-writing course for companies and our business-writing courses for individuals. You can also call us on +44 (0)1273 732  888  for a no-obligation chat with one of our friendly advisors. To learn more about making  report writing a much easier and less painful task, check out our free webinar  recording How to turn your expert analysis into exceptional reports.  Its ideal if you have to write reports to colleagues and clients as part of your day-to-day job – whether thats as a traditional written report or as a slide deck.