How Basketball Is The Respected Sport It Is Today

Bas ·ket ·ball /ˈbaskÉ™tËÅ'bà ´l/ is a game played between two teams of five players in which goals are scored by throwing a ball through a netted hoop fixed above each end of the court. Also referring to the inflated ball used in the game of basketball (dict 1). Basketball is one of the world’s most widely played sports and has been in played for over a hundred years. This sport is played through organizations by schools, and credited clubs, as well as voluntarily in â€Å"pick-up games†. A â€Å"pick-up† game is a basketball game played outside at a local court or in a gym by the average person looking to exercise in an enjoyable and competitive way. This simple idea turned into an international phenomenon, which is easy to watch, and fun to play. My goal in this paper is to explain the history of how basketball came to be the respected sport it is today. To achieve this goal, I have organized my paper in three sections. Each section has a sub-section to tie the two ideas to one another. In the first section I describe the American known inventor of basketball. In this I describe his background of the creator of basketball. In the sub section of the first topic I discuss how he infused a childhood game to teach a physical education class and unknowingly creating basketball. Also some of the controversy that is discussed in many articles that question who is the absolute inventor of basketball. In the second section I discuss the tools he used for the first ever basketball game. As wellShow MoreRelatedHow Are Women Valued Today?1702 Words   |  7 PagesHow are women valued in sports? This paper will argue systems, oppression and power against women in sports and in society and will talk about the system of sports and the discrimination against women in society. It will include the question how are women valued in sports and how it p lays a big role in society today? 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Military Strength at Our Borders - 3237 Words

American Military University Miltary Strenght at our Borders A Research Paper Submitted to by Manassas, West Virginia Date Submitted 28 June, 2012 Military Strength at our Borders As todays military currently winds down from actions in Iraq, Afghanistan and other lands where the current war on terror is being fought they face a downsizing that will return thousands home looking for new employment options. Every one of these individuals whether enlisted or part of the officer ranks have sworn to protect the Constitution of the United States from all enemies, foreign and domestic. If not taking the fight to the terrorist in their own lands, what better place to protect the†¦show more content†¦One of the primary benefits of this program would be the information and resource sharing. Today’s military forces currently hold a level of operational experience not seen in decades. For over ten years our forces have been increasing their effectiveness in a multitude of security and reconstruction efforts. As the level of violence along the border increases the US Customs and Border Agents are face with a new kind of â€Å"enemy tactics† that can be perceived as middle ground between current border operations in Afghanistan and the historical security issues along the border. A melding of the military tactics used to train Afghani security force on the protection of their own border, historical US Customs and Border tactics and techniques along with effective rules of engagement can reduce violence and illegal cross border flows. An initial â€Å"cross training† between military tactics subject matter experts, military mission planning subject matter experts and operational Customs and Border Patrol agents can be much more efficient and effective than training a group of new agents. The ground tactics force is not the only aspect of this effort; their primary mission should be the security of the engineering and construction force and surveillance of the borders such similar to the efforts of Operation Jump Start (Greenhill. 2006 / pg25). The overall major focus of thisShow MoreRelatedThe United States And The 21st Century Essay1517 Words   |  7 PagesThe 21st Century has brought progress and challenges to the world; however, the United States remains the world’s leader in economic growth, technologic advancement, military strength and security, and the protection of human rights. After the 2008 economic recession that resulted in the economy shrinking by 8.2%, the United States saw an economic turnaround as it became the world’s leader in oil exports due to its shale oil revolution. 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America had a firm hand in the creation of NATO and has an obligation to protect and strengthen the alliance, however under the current administration has remained concerningly absent from the effort to protect the Baltic Allies from Russian hegemony. It is imperative to promote discourse regarding the action of the United States Federal Government should take in partnership with NATO to reduce Russian military and economic encroachment

Music as Art. My Favorite Music Style. free essay sample

My favorite music style. Music is an art form whose medium is sound and silence that are organized in time in a special way. Its common elements are pitch (which governs melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation), dynamics, and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture. In the historical context the development of music is inseparable from the active development of persons sensory abilities. Course of the auditory development of the man of the musical material in a changing cultural environment is the most fundamental part of the music history.The specificity of the music as a special aesthetic value is disclosed in the ratio of applied creativity and artistic purposes. Music is an art form that is designed for auditory perception. Its feature is direct and strong impact on the people. For instance, Leo Tolstoy said that musical art by its nature has a direct psychological effect on the nerves. We will write a custom essay sample on Music as Art. My Favorite Music Style. or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In contrast to all the kinds of visual and verbal arts, music doesnt reproduce visible pictures of the world and is deprived of the semantic specificity. Thats why it can be considered a truly universal language which doesnt require translation.In comparison with the works of all kinds spatial arts musical creations are almost indestructible because it exists in perfect form but not in material. It cant be touched and forged, as it happens with paintings and sculptures, although it can be stolen, giving its authorship of someone elses work. Such art category as interpretation and performance play a great role in music. Masterly performed a musical work has more than one author if to take into account composer, performer (or performers) and the possibilities of the instruments. Music is divided into secular and spiritual.The main field of spiritual music is cultic. The development of the European musical theory of note writing and music pedagogy are associated with European cultic music (commonly called the church). According to performing assets music is divided into singing (singing), instrumental and vocal-instrumental. Music can be divided into genres, types and styles. The criteria for this division can be rhythm, tools, methods and other parameters. Basic genres are: folk music, spiritual music, classic music, Latin American music, blues, jazz, country music, chanson, electronic music, rock music, popular music, hip-hop, ask, reggae. My favorite style of music is Russian rock. It is rock music with the texts in the Russian language. The distinctive features of Russian rock are: non-profit nature, the impact of political changes in the society on the image and work of each rock group, deep meaning of texts. Russian rock was born in the USSR in the second half of the XX century under the influence of the world, first of all, the Western music. By the mid-sass in Moscow and Leningrad first beat group were formed that performed covers of international hits. Among the earliest groups were Falcon, Scythian, Isomorphic and Slavs.The most famous place of performance of rock groups of the sass in Moscow became the center  «Energetic », in which at one of the concerts the wrought-iron gate was broken and mounted police was called to restore order. In this period concert records was mainly spread, which copied as samizdat from one owner tape recorders to another. For rock music of that time, which required a drive, performance in the acoustic version was pointless. By the end of 1 sass beginning of sass a full-fledged rock movement was formed in the USSR, which started to organize themselves with the help of the authorities.To organize the roots movement, in 1981 , the Leningrad rock club was opened, the first rock-club in the USSR (under a supervision of the KGB). Due to the rock-club, the rock-group for the first time there appeared a possibility to record and to give concerts legally and the authorities keep rockers under the supervision. Russian rock went through a difficult period in 1983-85 years, when on the initiative of the Coherence in the amateur groups were suppressed, the organization of concerts without state monopoly had been legated to private enterprise and threatened to jail.During this period, the Moscow gr oups are particularly affected by from such measures, Resurrection, Bravo, Corrosion of Metals, the police stopped their shows, and Some of their members even visited detention. Only in 1 985 the opening of the Moscow Rock Laboratory was opened that allowed the capital groups to legalize their activities. And with the beginning of perestroika and glasnost in 1 985, the musicians got the opportunity to perform live. Nautilus Bumptious, Aquarium, Zoo and team C became popular.

The Librarian Review Essay Example

The Librarian Review Paper Essay on The Librarian Like many took to read this book because of the Booker. Otherwise, it is unlikely to hit me in the arm. I read with the feeling that there is not rarely as clear, but to say that like it happened or power connection, emotional or intellectual pleasure or shock no. The book is written well and professionally, the language is good, from the philological point of view, to find fault difficult. Why the book is not like so much? Rejection appears to cause the contents. In my view, to understand the meaning of this novel can only be a person, even if a child catches the Soviet system. The youth of today, though, and carries the blood of their own Soviet their parents really feel nostalgic for the time unable to matter and perceives the content of both fiction and not as a figurative reality. Libraries, as a group of warring readers of the books of a Gromov, books, nonsensical content, but can be administered in different emotional state after reading them. These groups unsuited marginal, naive and violent, capable of self-sacrifice and accidents to the bone. They are deceived and forced to fight for any interests, which prove to be a struggle for power and influence of the leaders of these groups, libraries, their opaque arrangements and betrayals. The rank and file fighters libraries with their revolutionary and insane, senseless militant enthusiasm, that life has no meaning outside of these associations. Mokhov crazy old woman from a nursing home, which becomes for the main character Moirae fate. Jungian archetypal old women, the electorate in real life that sizzles in the youth back: They want to live well, not as we want what Evo! They actually choose us power. All this Soviet our lives, thats what we do not want to accept, reject Elizarova novel. We want to tell fantasy, nonsense, nonsense, lies, trash, just would not admit that its crazy reality of our existence. It is understandable why, instead of isolation and explaining the events of the author hands of c razy old women puts the main character in a dungeon from which there is no hope of escape. No physical liberty in our world, and only the adoption of this and understand that freedom can only be internal, hero reconciles with his position. Realizing its mission, he sits and pishet- is the only thing he can do in this world deprived of their liberty, it is his mission and his ministry in the name of unknown meaning of the universe. The Librarian Review Essay Example The Librarian Review Paper Essay on The Librarian Recently, I reflect on the following pattern: books, winning various literary prizes (in particular, this novel won the Russian Booker), do not get recognition from the general reader The Neanderthals, highbrow, cronyism and money Whats going on? Readers weight dropped to the Neanderthals? is completely divorced from the people Critics? We will write a custom essay sample on The Librarian Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Librarian Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Librarian Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Or, as they say insulted the authors and their fans premiums , everything is decided by cronyism and money Talk about it with different people -?. This is the place to be all put together, and so was at all times. Mass reader is always not very bestowed the book, which are then entered into the world classics. Critics and experts are always cooked to your saucepan. A pull money and no one has ever been canceled and will not call, because people want stability. So nothing new is happening, said one of them Who am I And I decided to define who I am.? If I think I like the one who wins the prize, it means that I do not hamadryad differently, having learned to read, but something a little more complicated. If we are not special, then at least a person with a strong taste. Got Librarian. I read, pozeval, ponasiloval himself has read. No, the taste I did not have. I have this book is not something that first gave, I would have it, probably at the reception stage still rejected. So, I hamadryad? Its a shame it became to recognize. Maybe it through connections or a grandmother, and I here omit yourself? I go into the question. I decided to read what others have written about it. For if through connections, the majority of specialists have to curse, and those that Grandma got to be a little bit, because less money than specialists, and all of them can not buy, and therefore those who have not received, write the truth. Specialists praise, almost all. It turns out, not for the grandmother. Dai, I think, poizuchat ratings. too bad standing in the rankings. I climbed up on the reader forums. If the book diverges so, it means that people have and simple, like me, write something. Yeah, odds, she won the award because, of course. The award it is always intriguing. Reviews conflicting someone praises, but most of the people spat at best perplexed. In short, I hit it again to the crowd, which did not like this novel. He even wanted to read it, understand what Im in it and did not understand what the depth of thought and what beauty is not appreciated. However, he could not, the taste is not enough, and thats it. Potoskoval I potoskoval and was forced to plead final gamadrily without any literary taste, and crashed my self-esteem lower than five cockroaches in the deepest basement Im a man of the crowd -. I, for the most part, like in modern literature all that everybody likes. Note that there is not a success, and that like. Success can be achieved technically, but love is not. It is love that gives the most reliable and long lasting success, which does not always happen at the start of a deafening, because they love quietly to myself. So what I mean? Do not provoked this book at I love her, in spite of the success with the spices and even a good sales in the masses, Ive also bought. Eh. What love the phenomenon would be enigmatic even a man of the crowd, as it does not explain the chemistry and advertising technologies. Even what may this book will go into the world classics and will live forever, and me with my opinions and dust does not remain, not shaken my heart.

Explain why the League of Nati essays

Explain why the League of Nati essays Explain why the League of Nations failed in the 1930s [6] Its membership never embraced all the great nations. It had no moral determination. It dared not offend the Great Powers. It had positive means of enforcing its decisions. It was not universally trusted. It did not attempt to make a stand until it was too late. The concept of the League of Nations could only succeed if all great Nations were members. Although the membership of the League steadily increased this was never the case. The U.S. never joined the League; Germany was not accepted as a member until 1926 and withdrew in 1934, Russia was initially very hostile to the League and did not join until 1934, and Japan withdrew in 1933. The League showed in its early days that it was not always willing to take a stand over a matter of principle. For example; Italy and Corfu: An Italian General was murdered in 1923 while arranging a new border between Greece and Albania. The Italians blamed the Greeks (although Albanians might have not bee responsible), sent them an unacceptable ultimatum and then invaded the island of Corfu. The League persuaded the Greeks to pay 50 million lire into a Swiss bank while mediation took place. Meanwhile the Conference of Ambassadors of the victorious powers decided that Italy should be appeased and ordered the 50 million lire to be paid to Mussolini as compensation. The result shows that the League was prepared to allow its decisions to be overruled by the Great Powers and that it would permit a big nation to bully a small one. Machine parts were found to contain machine guns. Somebody was re-arming Hungary contrary to the Versailles settlement. Then the League went to investigate it found that the Hungarians had broken up the guns. However, as the train carrying the weapons had started its journey in Italy, it seemed likely that Mussolini was responsible. When the League debated the matter it mildly rebuked the Hungar...

Short Biography of Hugo de Vries

Short Biography of Hugo de Vries Hugo Marie de Vries was born on February 16, 1848, to Maria Everardina Reuvens and Djur Gerrit de Vries in Haarlem, The Netherlands. His father was a lawyer who later went on to serve as the Prime Minister of The Netherlands in the 1870s. As a young child, Hugo quickly found a love of plants and even won several awards for his botany projects while he attended school in Haarlem and The Hauge. de Vries decided to pursue a degree in botany from Leiden University. While studying at the college, Hugo became intrigued by experimental botany and Charles Darwins Theory of Evolution and Natural Selection. He graduated in 1870 from Leiden University with a Doctorate in botany. He taught for a short time before attending Heidelberg University to study Chemistry and Physics. However, that adventure only lasted only  about a semester before he went off to Wurzberg to study plant growth. He went back to teaching botany, geology, and zoology in Amsterdam for several years while returning to Wurzburg on his vacations to continue his work with plant growth. Personal Life In 1875, Hugo de Vries moved to Germany where he worked and published his findings on plant growth. It was while he was living there that he met and married Elisabeth Louise Egeling in 1878. They returned to Amsterdam where Hugo was hired as a lecturer at the University of Amsterdam. It was not long before he was elected as a member of the Royal Academy of the Arts and Sciences. In 1881, he was given full professorship in botany. Hugo and Elisabeth had a total of four children - one daughter and three sons. Biography Hugo de Vries is best known for his work in the field of genetics as the subject was in its so-called infancy stages. Gregor Mendels findings were not well known at the time, and de Vries had come up with some very similar data that could be put together with Mendels laws to create a more fully developed picture of genetics. In 1889, Hugo de Vries hypothesized that his plants had what he called pangenes. Pangenes are what is now known as genes and they carried the genetic information from one generation to the next. In 1900, after Gregor Mendel published his findings from working with pea plants, de Vries saw that Mendel had discovered the same things he had seen in his plants as he wrote his book. Since de Vries did not have Gregor Mendels work as a starting point for his experiments, he instead relied on writings by Charles Darwin who hypothesized how traits were passed down from parents to offspring generation after generation. Hugo decided that the characteristics were transmitted via some sort of particle that was given to the offspring by the parents. This particle was dubbed a pangene and the name was later shortened by other scientists to just gene. In addition to discovering genes, de Vries also focused on how species changed because of those genes. Even though his mentors, while he was at University and worked in labs, did not buy into the Theory of Evolution as written by Darwin, Hugo was a big fan of Darwins work. His decision to incorporate the idea of evolution and a change in species over time into his own thesis for his doctorate was met with a lot of resistance by his professors. He ignored their pleas to remove that part of his thesis and successfully defended his ideas. Hugo de Vries explained that the species changed over time most likely through changes, which he called mutations, in genes. He saw these differences in wild forms of evening primrose and used this as evidence to prove that species did change as Darwin said, and probably on a much quicker timeline than what Darwin had theorized. He became famous in his life due to this theory and revolutionized the way people thought about Darwins Theory of Evolution. Hugo de Vries retired from active teaching in 1918 and moved to his large estate where he continued to work in his large garden and study the plants he grew there, coming up with different discoveries he published. Hugo de Vries died on March 21, 1935, in Amsterdam.

Hierarchy of Needs and FIT theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Hierarchy of Needs and FIT theory - Essay Example It is the fulfillment of the self through our efforts in developing our potential – the essence we are born with; and the acceptance of our limitations. It is our life purpose unfolded, integrated into the self and lived. Now, in keeping with his theory up to this point, if you want to be truly self-actualizing, you need to have your lower needs taken care of, at least to a considerable extent. This makes sense: If you are hungry, you are scrambling to get food; If you are unsafe, you have to be continuously on guard; If you are isolated and unloved, you have to satisfy that need; If you have a low sense of self-esteem, you have to be defensive or compensate. When lower needs are unmet, you can’t fully devote yourself to fulfilling your potentials. Once a person does not feel the needs of self esteem, he or she can weather the storms of daily life. Else they can feel lost. It isn’t surprising, then, the world being as difficult as it is, that only a small percent age of the world’s population is truly, predominantly, self-actualizing. Maslow at one point suggested only about two percent!

Compare and critically analyse the UK marketing strategies of Dominos Essay - 2

Compare and critically analyse the UK marketing strategies of Dominos Pizza and Pizza Hut - Essay Example The company has over 650 stores in the UK, as well as 350 restaurants and 300 delivery stores. Pizza Hut is still a giant among the pizza chains but has been quite disappointed with the second-quarter results in the U.S market. According to a report by (Munarriz, 2014), Pizza Hut’s revenue has climbed by 10.5 percent to $446.6 million, fueled by a 7.7 percent spike in the restaurant sales. The essay is a comparison and a critical analysis of the marketing strategies utilized by Domino’s Pizza and Pizza Hut to achieve competitive advantage in the UK market. The company has an effective strategy towards developing the different sizes of products ranging from small to medium and large. (Dominos, n.d.), agrees that such a strategy is useful in covering the interests of most of the company’s customer base. Also, the idea to develop different types of pizzas is effective in promoting its products and catering for the different tastes of customers. For instance, their range of products includes varieties such as Mexican Green Wave Pizza, Country Special Pizza, Seventh Heaven Pizza, Zesty Chicken pizza, and Grand Supreme Pizza among other popular pizzas. Since not every client visiting the restaurant might be interested in buying pizza, the management has a good move to counter the loophole and now offers extra food items such as Stuffed Garlic Bread Sticks, Calzone pockets, Pasta Italiano, and Taco Indiana. Domino’s pricing strategy in the marketing mix is also effective and targeted towards the lower middle-class as well as the middle-class income group (Dominos, n.d.). In fact, Domino’s delivery price is proven to be slightly below that of Pizza hut in its traditional restaurants. The move by the company to develop a consistent and uniform pricing policy is satisfactory and beneficial towards encouraging repeat customers. The price factor, though lower than that of Pizza Hut, appears to be troublesome and a contributory factor to its

Secondary Traits and Social Systems Essay Example for Free

Secondary Traits and Social Systems Essay Personality can be a part of complex physiology rather than the simple, straightforward approaches taken by many personality theorists.   We are constantly creating and reviving our personalities from our social experiences and our sense of acceptance or rejection by others.   In addition to our perception and pruning of our personalities due to outside forces, we are constantly changing our states of being away from a homeostatic state to physiological states of consonance and dissonance and all points in between. Therefore, a reasonable theory of personality development is possible when taking these social and physiological aspects of our natural quests for self-actualization and harmony of personality.    In agreeing that a more comprehensive theory is possible, I must disagree then, that these simple and straightforward trait approaches adequately explain or elaborate on many facets of my personality. I do not believe that my personality has remained constant, as I have had to change and do so frequently due to approval or criticism.   I believe that in moving to self-actualization, I not only go through psycho-social stages and crises, but idiosyncratic events (such as the death of a family member, a move, or any other significant change) has served to change me, as well. No one can gauge this in a simple theory, but to put it simply, the world changes me and I change the reality of the world around me.   Events that once made me happy may make my cynical and, conversely, what I was once cynical about I am now content with.   So, it is impossible to say that I was once a person with a happy and carefree personality and am now cynical or vice versa.   This all depends on the situation.   Also, my spirituality helps me to change the way I think and behave, in essence this is an ongoing change of my personality, as well.

Hepatitis B 2 Essay -- essays research papers

Hepatitis B can be prevented with a highly effective vaccine, but this year ten to thirty million people will become infected with the hepatitis B virus. I feel that because this disease is preventable, only knowledge can help reduce the number of people infected.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hepatitis B is a serious liver disease caused by the hepatitis B virus. This virus is a blood-borne pathogen. It is one hundred times more infectious than HIV. “Hepatitis B is one of the most frequently reported vaccine preventable diseases in the United States,'; according to the Centers for Disease Control. This disease is transmitted through oral, vaginal, and anal sex. You can also acquire the disease through sharing needles, toothbrushes, and razors, or if you come in contact with infected blood. For these reasons, the people at the highest risk of contracting the disease are: anyone who is sexually active; health, dental, and emergency workers; adoptive families with children form Asia, Africa, South America, Eastern and Mediterranean Europe (as these areas have a high number of people infected); drug users; and anyone in close contact with someone infected. This is not as scary as it seems, for you cannot contract the virus through sneezing, coughing, or holding hands. A surprising fact about hepatitis B, considering it is preventable, is that one in twenty people are or will be infected in their lifetime. There are one million people infected in the United Stat...

A Review of the Role of Soluble Fiber in Health with Specific Reference to Wheat Dextrin

Journal of International Medical Research http://imr. sagepub. com/ A Review of the Role of Soluble Fiber in Health with Specific Reference to Wheat Dextrin JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz and G Fotopoulos Journal of International Medical Research 2009 37: 1 DOI: 10. 1177/147323000903700101 The online version of this article can be found at: http://imr. sagepub. com/content/37/1/1 Published by: http://www. sagepublications. com Additional services and information for Journal of International Medical Research can be found at: Email Alerts: http://imr. agepub. com/cgi/alerts Subscriptions: http://imr. sagepub. com/subscriptions Reprints: http://www. sagepub. com/journalsReprints. nav Permissions: http://www. sagepub. com/journalsPermissions. nav >> Version of Record – Feb 1, 2009 What is This? Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 The Journal of International Medical Research 2009; 37: 1 – 17 A Review of the Role of Soluble Fiber in Health wit h Specific Reference to Wheat Dextrin JL SLAVIN1, V SAVARINO2, A PAREDES-DIAZ3* 1 AND G FOTOPOULOS4Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota, USA; 2 Department of Internal Medicine, Gastroenterology Unit, Genoa, Italy; 3Novartis Consumer Health, Parsippany, New Jersey, USA; 4Novartis Consumer Health, Nyon, Switzerland dextrin, based on a search of PubMed. The evidence suggests that soluble fibers help to regulate the digestive system, may increase micronutrient absorption, stabilize blood glucose and lower serum lipids, may prevent several gastrointestinal disorders, and have an accepted role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease.It is concluded that supplementation with soluble fibers (e. g. wheat dextrin) may be useful in individuals at risk of a lower than recommended dietary fiber intake. ACIDS; Dietary fiber is widely recognized to have a beneficial role in overall health, but only at adequate levels (25 – 38 g/day for he althy adults). Wheat dextrin in particular is a soluble fiber that can easily be added to the diet and is widely used in the food industry. There is some debate about whether increased intake of soluble fibers leads to health benefits.This paper reviews the evidence regarding the physiological effects and potential health benefits of the addition of soluble dietary fibers, with specific reference to wheat KEY WORDS: SOLUBLE FIBER; WHEAT DEXTRIN; SHORT-CHAIN FATTY PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS; HEALTH BENEFITS PREBIOTICS; Introduction Fiber, the indigestible part of plants such as cereals, fruits and vegetables (Table 1), has a fundamental role in the regulation of the digestive system and may help to prevent troublesome disorders such as constipation,1 – 3 diarrhea4 – 6 and irritable bowel syndrome. – 9 Fiber may also help to regulate the absorption of micronutrients,3,10,11 stabilize glucose12 – 14 and cholesterol levels,15 – 17 have a role in cardiovascu lar health18 – 20 and possibly help to prevent some forms of cancer. 21 – 23 *Current address: 90 Possum Way, New Providence, NJ 07974, USA. Many nutrition and healthcare professionals use the terms ‘soluble’ and ‘insoluble’ fibers for nutrition labeling. 24 – 27 Soluble fibers dissolve in water and usually form a gel.They are generally fermented by bacteria in the lower intestine, but they are indigestible and hence not absorbed into the bloodstream. 24,28 Soluble fibers also ferment to form short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) such as butyrate, acetate and propionate (Table 2). 17,29 – 34 Short-chain fatty acids generate approximately 1 – 2 kcal/g of ingested fiber, so are used as an energy source by the intestinal Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 1 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al.The health benefits of soluble fiber TABLE 1: Classification systems for fiber based on four different fibe r characteristics Dietary fibers Lignin (polyphenolic compound, in cell walls of woody plants and seeds) Cellulose (glucose polymer, in all plant cell walls) ? -Glucans (glucose polymers, in oats, barley) Hemicelluloses (polysaccharides, in plant cell walls) Pectins (viscous polysaccharides, in fruits and berries) Gums (viscous polysaccharides, in seeds; e. g. uar gum) Inulin and oligofructose (mixture of fructose chains, in plants such as onions) Resistant starch (starch in plant cell walls; inaccessible to human digestive enzymes; often found in bananas and legumes; may also be formed by food processing) Soluble fibers Wheat dextrin ? -Glucans Gums (e. g. guar gum, partially hydrolyzed guar gum) Mucilages (e. g. psyllium) Pectins Fructo-oligosaccharides Some hemicelluloses Sources: oat products, legumes (dry beans, peas, lentils) Fermentable fibers Wheat dextrin Pectins ? Glucans Guar gum Partially hydrolyzed guar gum Inulin and oligofructose Sources: oats, barley, fruits, vegetab les Viscous fibers Pectins ? -Glucans Some gums (e. g. guar gum) Mucilages (e. g. psyllium) Functional fibers Resistant dextrins (e. g. wheat dextrin) (indigestible polysaccharides formed when starch is heated and treated with enzymes; includes resistant maltodextrins) Psyllium (viscous mucilage, isolated from husks of psyllium seeds; also known as ispaghula husk) Chitin and chitosan (nondigestible carbohydrate from exoskeletons of crustaceans, e. . crabs, lobsters; deacetylation of chitin gives chitosan, a nondigestible glucosamine polymer) Fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS, short synthetic fructose) Polydextrose and polyols (synthetic polysaccharides used as bulking agents and sugar substitutes in foods) Insoluble fibers Cellulose Lignin Some pectins Some hemicelluloses Sources: wheat bran, some vegetables Non-fermentable fibers Cellulose Lignin Sources: cereal fibers rich in cellulose (e. g. wheat bran)Non-viscous fibers Cellulose Lignin Some hemicelluloses mucosa and are absorbed thr ough the colonic wall, where they are metabolized to produce energy or transported into the general circulation. 29 SCFAs also stimulate epithelial cell differentiation and proliferation. 29 Soluble fibers can also promote the growth of colonic Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 2 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiberTABLE 2: Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) produced by fermentable, soluble fiber17,29 – 34 Butyrate Widely recognized as the most significant acid in terms of its documented effects in the colon The preferred nutrient for the cells lining the colonic epithelium, in particular the distal colon and rectum The preferred substrate for colonocytes Positive effects on colonic mucosal growth, crypt cell proliferation, and early-response gene expression Acetate A fuel for skeletal and cardiac muscle, kidney and the brain A substrate for fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis Propionate Metabolized by the l iver Only SCFA that can be a major source of glucose (after metabolism, used for energy production) May play a role in cholesterol lowering bacterial flora (prebiotic effect). 35 – 37 Insoluble fibers, on the other and, do not dissolve in water, are generally less fermentable by colonic microflora and are indigestible,26 so pass through the intestines almost intact. Insoluble fibers have passive water-attracting properties that help to normalize large bowel function by acting like a sponge, pulling water into the stool and making it easier to pass. 38 They may also decelerate intestinal transit time, increase fecal weight through bulk action, delay glucose absorption and help to control and balance the pH in the intestines. 39,40 In the USA, the daily intake recommended by the American Dietetic Association (ADA) is 20 – 35 g fiber/day for healthy adults, and ‘age plus 5 g/day’ for children. 6 The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends > 25 g/day,41 whi le the British Nutrition Foundation recommends 12 – 24 g/day for healthy adults. 42 The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine established the Adequate Intake (AI) recommendation for fiber (both soluble and insoluble),24 which ranges from 19 to 38 g/day for children, depending on age, and from 25 to 38 g/day for healthy adults. The majority of people, however, do not seem to achieve the recommended daily intake of fiber, and women in general seem to consume lower amounts than men. 43,44 Wheat dextrin is a soluble fiber that has been widely used in the food industry because it has a low viscosity and so has a good consistency when added to water, beverages or soft food. 4 It is formed by heating wheat starch at high temperature, followed by enzymatic (amylase) treatment to form a resistant starch. 24,45 It qualifies as a dietary fiber because the non-digestible glucoside linkages (Fig. 1) lead to incomplete hydrolysation, so that only a small percentage of wheat dextrin is absorbed in the small intestine and the rest is slowly fermented in the large intestine. 3 This review aims to assess the evidence regarding the physiological effects and potential health benefits of supplementing the diet with soluble fibers, with specific reference to wheat dextrin. Data source The PubMed database (US National Library Downloaded from imr. sagepub. om by guest on March 27, 2013 3 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber CH2OH O OH O OH O CH2OH O OH HO O CH2 O OH O OH O OH CH2OH O OH O OH CH2OH O OH OH O OH OH O OH O OH HO 1:2 bond O O CH2OH O OH CH2OH O O OH OH O OH 1:3 bond CH2OH O OH O CH2 O OH O HO CH2OH O OH 1:6 bond O CH2 O H2 C O O CH2OH O CH2OH O OH O HO OH FIGURE 1: Chemical structure of wheat dextrin of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA) was searched (to July 2007) using the terms ‘wheat dextrin’ and ‘soluble fiber’, and studies were selected based on wh ether they evaluated the physiological or clinical effects of soluble fibers.Although this non-systematic approach limits the review in that a quantitative analysis was not performed, it does allow a general and potentially useful overview of the effects of supplementation with soluble fibers. Physiological effects of soluble fibers FERMENTABILITY In vitro fermentation of wheat dextrin, inulin and partially hydrolysed guar gum (PHGG), and analysis of the resulting SCFA production over a 24-h period17 revealed that all three fibers demonstrated detectable fermentability. Acetate was the main SCFA produced by all fibers, accounting for about 50% of the total SCFA. Over 24 h, wheat dextrin produced substantially more total SCFA, propionate and butyrate than PHGG, which consistently showed lower fermentability at all time points (Fig. 2A – 2C).To reduce gas production (which can be socially undesirable and cause uncomfortable bloating), extensive fermentation at 24 h is desirable , while fast fermentation (e. g. high values at 4 h) may be undesirable. The total amount of SCFA produced by wheat dextrin at 4 h was just over half the amount produced by glucose Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 4 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber A Concentration ( µmol/ml) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 B Concentration ( µmol/ml) 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 4 8 12 Time since start of fermentation (h) 24 0 4 8 12 Time since start of fermentation (h) 24 C Concentration ( µmol/ml) 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 4 8 12 Time since start of fermentation (h) 24 Wheat dextrin PHGG Inulin F97 GlucoseFIGURE 2: Analysis of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production following in vitro fermentation of wheat dextrin, partially hydrolysed guar gum (PHGG) inulin and glucose (positive control) over 24 h: (A) total SCFA production; (B) butyrate production; and (C) propionate production17 (positive control) and almost half the amount produced by inulin at the same time point (Fig. 2A). The fermentation of wheat dextrin, therefore, occurred slowly over 24 h, so its consumption was less likely to result in the gas production that can occur as a result of rapid fiber fermentation. composition towards a more beneficial distribution. 17,46 For example, the consumption of fructo-oligosaccharides led to an increase in fecal bifidobacteria,36,47,48 while ingestion of polydextrose resulted in a dosedependent decrease in bacteriodes and an increase in beneficial lactobacilli and bifidobacteria. 49 Administration of PHGG for 3 weeks increased the Lactobacillus spp count in feces. 0 Consumption of wheat dextrin led to a lower colonic pH, an increase in the fecal concentration of glucosidases, a statistically significant increase in the beneficial lactobacilli population and a statistically significant decrease in pathogenic Clostridium perfringens. 35 In another study, wheat dextrin increased the fecal concentration of glu cosidase;45,51 increased glucosidase activity is considered beneficial to the host and is linked to substrate fermentation leading to more SCFAs and lactic acid production. PREBIOTIC EFFECT The SCFAs produced by soluble fermentable fibers are moderately strong acids (pK 4. 8)29 and so they lower colonic pH. Lowering the pH in the large ntestine may support the growth of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli because they have a strong intrinsic resistance to acid and the lower pH may help to prevent the growth of pH-sensitive pathogenic bacteria such as clostridia. 30 Many soluble fermentable fibers have demonstrated a significant prebiotic effect and alter the intestinal microflora Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 5 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber EFFECT ON LAXATION AND REGULARITY The formation of SCFAs helps to improve laxation and regularity by increasing fecal bulk and weight and increasing the waterholding c apacity (and thus the hydration) of feces. 0,46 The increase in fecal bulk and weight results from the presence of fiber, the water that the fiber holds and the partial fermentation of the fiber, which increases the amount of bacteria in the feces. 52 Studies have confirmed that consumption of the soluble fibers inulin or oligofructose result in an increase in fecal weight,53 while inulin helped to reduce constipation2 and polydextrose increased fecal mass and sometimes stool frequency. 49,54 Consumption of psyllium significantly increased stool frequency and stool weight, increased stool water content, improved stool consistency, increased the frequency of bowel movements and reduced pain on defecation. 55 – 59 Wheat dextrin significantly increased dry fecal output by 70% (P < 0. 02) and wet fecal output by 45% (P < 0. 05) (Fig. 3). The increase in wet fecal output was due to increased dry matter output (38%) and increased water output (62%). IMPROVED NUTRIENT/MINERAL ABSORP TION Although dietary fibers are traditionally thought to decrease mineral absorption, animal models and human studies have demonstrated that soluble fermentable fibers appear to increase the absorption of certain minerals. 3,10,60 – 62 For example, soluble fibers may increase calcium absorption through the increased production of SCFAs, with an increase in the villus crypt height, number of epithelial cells per crypt, cecal vein flow and mucosal-to-serosal calcium fluxes and stimulation of the expression of calbindinD9K, thereby enhancing the active calcium transport route. 3 Soluble fibers may also increase the absorption of other minerals such as magnesium, zinc and iron. 3,10,11 Studies in rats showed that the absorption of calcium, magnesium and/or zinc may be enhanced by guar gum,64 inulin,10,65 oligofructose65 and PHGG. 11 In healthy men supplemented with either wheat dextrin or dextrose (100 g/day), ingestion of wheat dextrin significantly increased magnesium apparent absorption (50. 9%, P = 0. 001) and retention (30. 9 mg/day, P = 0. 024) and tended 80 P < 0. 02 70 60 Increase (%) 50 40 30 20 10 0 Wet fecal output FIGURE 3: Effect of wheat dextrin on fecal output3 Dry fecal output P < 0. 05 45% 70% Downloaded from imr. sagepub. om by guest on March 27, 2013 6 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber (not statistically significant) to increase calcium apparent absorption (37. 4%) and retention (111 mg/day) (Table 3). 3 prandial plasma glucose concentrations (–13 mg, P = 0. 04) and a significant reduction in the urinary excretion of glucose (P = 0. 008) compared with the low-fiber diet. 13 In fact, the effects of fiber on glucose concentrations are most evident in individuals with diabetes mellitus and it has been suggested that diabetics should consume 25 – 50 g/day of dietary fiber, with ? 55% of their calorie intake coming from carbohydrate. 4 To assess the effect of fiber on the risk for diabetes, more than 65 000 women (40 – 65 years of age) were followed for 6 years; it was found that dietary glycemic index and glycemic load were positively associated with the development of type 2 diabetes, and dietary fiber was inversely associated. 75 Beyond the effects of fiber on post-prandial glucose and insulin, fiber alters the responses and actions of the gut hormones gastric inhibitory peptide,76 glucagon-like peptide177 and cholecystokinin (CCK). 78 CCK is a peptide hormone and neurotransmitter that regulates gut motility, gall bladder contraction and pancreatic enzyme secretion and may mediate the post-prandial glycemic and insulinemic response to viscous fibers. A direct correlation has been reported between post-prandial CCK and subjective satiety scores following ingestion of foods with varying amounts of fiber. 79,80 DECREASED GLYCEMIA AND INSULINEMIAThrough the production of SCFAs, soluble fibers can stimulate pancreatic insulin release and affect liver con trol of glycogen breakdown,66,67 and so may be effective in decreasing blood glucose and insulin levels and improving glycemic and insulinemic indices. 68 Guar gum,69,70 inulin12 and dextrin71 were all found to improve postprandial glycemia. In healthy subjects, the glycemic index of wheat dextrin was 25% compared with dextrose and the insulin response with wheat dextrin was also low at 13% compared with dextrose. 14 Resistant dextrins led to reduced blood glucose concentrations and insulin secretion in rats after sucrose or maltose loading,72,73 reduced the post-prandial blood glucose concentrations in healthy men and women,13 and significantly reduced fasting blood glucose concentrations in type 2 diabetics. 6 In patients with type 2 diabetes given a diet high (25 g soluble plus 25 g insoluble fiber) or low (8 g soluble plus 16 g insoluble fiber) in total fiber, the high-fiber diet resulted in significantly lower pre- TABLE 3: Effect of wheat dextrin supplementation (100 g/day) on the absorption and retention of magnesium and calcium in healthy men3 Dextrose diet Calcium Apparent absorption, mean, mg/day (%) Retention, mean, mg/day Magnesium Apparent absorption, mean, mg/day (%) Retention, mean, mg/day 187 (28. 8) 39. 3 65 (30. 4) –0. 3 Wheat dextrin diet 269 (37. 4) 111 117 (50. 9) 30. 9 Statistical significance (P-value) 0. 093 0. 122 0. 001 0. 024 Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 7 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al.The health benefits of soluble fiber REDUCED CHOLESTEROL LEVELS The SFCAs can suppress cholesterol synthesis by the liver and may reduce serum levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and triglycerides. 81 Soluble, viscous fibers are also thought to exert their hypocholesterolemic action by increasing fecal sterol excretion and stimulating hepatic bile acid synthesis. 82,83 In a metaanalysis of 67 controlled trials, consumption of 2 – 10 g/day of fiber (i. e. pectin, oat bran, gua r gum, psyllium) reduced total cholesterol by 4% and LDL-C by 7% compared with placebo. 15 No significant effect was observed on serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and triacylglycerol concentrations.A greater reduction in serum total cholesterol and triacylglycerol concentrations was also noted in type 2 diabetics who consumed 60 g/day resistant dextrin compared with type 2 diabetics or healthy adults who consumed 30 g/day. 16 No difference was observed in the concentration of HDL-C. A diet high in total fiber (25 g soluble plus 25 g insoluble fiber) led to significantly reduced plasma total cholesterol (P = 0. 02), very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C) (P = 0. 01) and triglyceride (P = 0. 02) concentrations compared with a low-fiber diet, indicating that high fiber intake, especially soluble fiber, improves plasma lipid profile. 3 It has also been proposed that soluble fermentable fibers may lead to a reduction of cholesterol levels via the increased amo unts of propionate produced during their fermentation by the commensal bacteria, because propionate may inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis. 84 Fibers producing high amounts of SCFAs (particularly propionate), such as wheat dextrin, may help to sustain cholesterol levels within the normal range. 17 The cholesterol-lowering effects of wheat dextrin have been demonstrated in animal trials. 85 The findings suggest that its cholesterol-lowering effect is likely to be related to reduced cholesterol and bile salt absorption. However, not all soluble fibers are hypocholesterolemic agents; for example, oat bran has been shown to lower serum lipids while wheat bran did not. 81 IMMUNE FUNCTIONIt is possible that SCFAs help to improve immune function, as they stimulate the production of T helper cells, antibodies, leukocytes and splenocyte cytokines, all of which have a crucial role in immune protection. 86,87 In addition, SCFAs improve the barrier properties of the colonic mucosal layer, thus in hibiting inflammatory and adhesion irritants. 88 – 90 Lactic-acid-forming bacteria competitively inhibit and/or suppress the growth of pathogenic bacteria, and may have a positive influence on immune function. 91,92 WEIGHT REDUCTION Obesity is associated with increased energy intake and decreased consumption of fiberrich foods,93 while fiber intake is inversely associated with body weight and body fat. 94 – 97 Increasing daily fiber intake is an effective way of providing a satiating effect. 8 Dietary fiber also decreases gastric emptying and/or slows energy and nutrient absorption (a fiber-rich meal, which is also usually richer in micronutrients, is processed more slowly and nutrient absorption occurs over a greater period of time99), leading to lower post-prandial glucose and lipid levels. Furthermore, addition of dietary fiber to a low-calorie diet has been shown to lead to a significantly greater weight loss (8. 0 kg) compared with placebo (5. 8 kg). 100 When post -menopausal women consumed higher fiber diets, this was associated with significant weight loss. 101 A high Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 8 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber carbohydrate diet consumed ad libitum (i. e. elf-regulating), without energy restriction or change in energy intake, caused significant body weight and body fat losses in older men and women, with a significant decrease in thigh fat area (P = 0. 003). 102 A review of the effects of increased fiber (high-fiber foods or supplementation) on hunger, satiety, energy intake and body weight revealed that controlled energy intake with increased dietary fiber led to an increase in post-meal satiety and a decrease in subsequent hunger. 103 With ad libitum energy intake, increased dietary fiber (14 g/day) resulted in an average 10% decrease in energy intake and 1. 9 kg weight loss over 3. 8 months of intervention. The effects of increasing dieta ry fiber were reported to be greater in obese individuals.When evaluating the effects of 1 week of supplementation with soluble fiber (guar gum, 40 g/day) on hunger, satiety rating and energy intake, mean daily energy intake decreased significantly from 6. 7 to 5. 4 MJ, while hunger and satiety scores did not change. 104 Long-term (4 – 5 weeks) assessment of wheat dextrin (30 or 45 g/day) supplementation demonstrated a trend towards better weight maintenance; compared with baseline, body weight was increased in the control group supplemented with pure absorbable maltodextrin (+0. 87 kg; P = 0. 07), whereas body weight remained stable in the wheat dextrin-treated groups (+0. 0 kg). 35 sometimes stool frequency. 9,54 Psyllium significantly increased stool frequency and stool weight, increased stool water content, improved stool consistency, increased the frequency of bowel movements and reduced pain on defecation. 55 – 59 Administration of PHGG for 3 weeks increased the frequency of defecation (+0. 17 /day), increased fecal moisture (+5%) and decreased fecal pH. 50 Supplementation with PHGG also helped to reduce the use of laxatives (from an average of 2. 0 to 0. 2 doses/day). 105 Wheat dextrin (100 g/day) had a positive effect on fecal output in healthy men,3 with an average 45% increase in wet fecal weight (P < 0. 05) and 70% increase in dry fecal output (P < 0. 02) (Fig. 3). DIARRHEA Increased intake of soluble fiber may enhance recovery and improve stool consistency in diarrhea. ,5,106 – 109 Persistent diarrhea resolved in more children taking PHGG (84%) compared with those on the control diet (62%) (odds ratio 3. 12), while the duration of diarrhea was reduced and there was a trend towards reduction in daily stool weight that reached significance on days 4 – 7. 6 Compared with non-fiber control in children, PHGG significantly reduced the mean frequency of diarrhea (8. 8% versus 32. 0%; P = 0. 001), resulted in significantly fewer days with diarrhea per total feeding days (10. 8% versus 31. 5%; P < 0. 001) and led to a significantly lower mean diarrhea score (4. 8 versus 9. 4; P < 0. 001). 110 PHGG also suppressed diarrhea caused by the ingestion of high levels of non-digestible sugar substitutes. 11 In elderly patients with diarrhea, 4-week supplementation with soluble dietary fiber (7 g/day) significantly reduced the water content of feces (P < 0. 01), the fecal pH (P < 0. 05) and the frequency of daily bowel movements (P < 0. 05). 5 In addition, the fecal characteristics improved The role of soluble fiber in disease CONSTIPATION Increased daily fiber intake can ameliorate constipation. 40,49,52 – 59 Consumption of inulin or oligofructose was shown to increase fecal weight,53 inulin reduced constipation2 and polydextrose increased fecal mass and Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 9 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al.The health benefits of soluble fiber and the tota l level of SCFAs increased significantly (P < 0. 05). 5 In patients with fecal incontinence, significantly fewer incontinent stools were observed in those who consumed dietary fiber (psyllium or gum arabic) than those receiving placebo. 4 Improvements in fecal incontinence or stool consistency did not appear to be related to unfermented dietary fiber. However, the effects of increased soluble fiber on diarrhea are inconclusive, as a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials found no evidence that dietary fiber was effective in treating diarrhea. 112 randomized studies would be useful to confirm the potentially beneficial effects of soluble fiber in IBS.DIVERTICULOSIS A diet low in fiber is thought to play a role in the pathogenesis of diverticular disease. 114 Increasing dietary fiber produces bulky, soft stools, facilitating defecation and reducing intracolonic pressure. 114 Increased fiber also helps to promote regular bowel function and is important in controlling and minimi zing diverticular disease. 115 – 117 Non-viscous soluble fiber is associated with a decreased risk of diverticular disease and an improvement of bowel pain. 115 In patients with diverticulosis, it is recommended that patients consume 20 – 35 g/day of fiber either through the diet or supplementation. 118 IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROMETreatment for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is aimed at alleviating symptoms. In patients with mild symptoms, fiber supplementation (particularly non-gelling soluble fibers) may help to relieve the severity and frequency of IBS symptoms, including abdominal pain, spasms or distension/tension, bowel dysfunction (e. g. fluctuation between constipation and diarrhea) and flatulence. 8,9,113 PHGG was better tolerated than wheat bran and more readily accepted by IBS patients, resulting in an improved quality of life during the treatment period. 113 PHGG also had a positive effect on evacuation frequency with a decrease in the frequency of IBS symptoms such as flatulence, abdominal tension and abdominal spasm. 13 Based on its physiological properties, wheat dextrin may also help to alleviate gastrointestinal symptoms associated with IBS through increased fecal output,3 enhanced prebiotic capabilities35,45 and significant but slow fermentation in the lower intestine, producing high concentrations of SCFAs but lower amounts of gas, which could be an important aspect in relieving the discomfort caused by IBS. 17 However, double-blind, HEMORRHOIDS A low-fiber diet is thought to contribute to the etiology of hemorrhoids. 119 Increasing the fiber content in the diet can have a beneficial effect in the treatment of symptomatic hemorrhoids. 120,121 A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that increased fiber reduced the risk of bleeding and decreased the rate of recurrence of hemorrhoids,120 while a Cochrane review found that the risk of not improving hemorrhoids and having persisting symptoms decreased by 53% with increased intake of fiber, with a significant reduction in bleeding. 121CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE A number of studies have consistently found that a fiber-enriched diet (14 g fiber/1000 kcal energy) is associated with a significant reduction (16 – 33%) in the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). 19,20,122 – 126 A pooled analysis of studies evaluating dietary fiber Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 10 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber intake in the USA and Europe indicated that each 10 g/day increase in total fiber intake was associated with a 14% decrease in the risk of coronary events (e. g. myocardial infarction), and a 24% decrease in deaths from CHD. 9 A study on the relationship between dietary fiber and risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) among women over a 10-year period showed that the ageadjusted relative risk for major CVD was 0. 53 for women consuming the highest amount of fiber (22. 9 g/day) compared with thos e on the lowest fiber intake (11. 5 g/day). 125 Although few interventional studies have specifically assessed fiber intake on the risk of CVD, increased fiber has been shown to ameliorate some of the risk factors for CVD (e. g. high cholesterol levels, high blood pressure, obesity and diabetes). For example, fiber can significantly reduce blood cholesterol levels and so may be important to cardiovascular health. 5,16,81,127 Consuming foods rich in viscous soluble fibers has been shown to reduce blood levels of LDL-C by 10 – 15%, with an expected reduction in CVD events of 10 – 15%, and it has been stated that a diet including 5 – 10 g/day of viscous soluble fiber reduces CVD events and death independent of baseline risk. 18 Although the cholesterol-lowering effect of soluble (especially viscous) fibers probably contributes the most to its cardioprotective effects, other mechanisms are likely to play a role. As part of a lifestyle modification program, fiber can help to reduce blood pressure significantly,128 supporting research that found that highfiber intake was inversely associated with the risk of high blood pressure or hypertension. 129,130 Two intervention trials found that increased fiber intake resulted in significant reductions in blood pressure compared with placebo. 31,132 In an analysis of the association between nutrient intake and risk of stroke, dietary fiber was inversely correlated to the incidence of stroke, a relationship that was stronger in hypertensive than normotensive men. 133 Fiber is also effective at reducing the risk of diabetes and, thus, the risk of developing CVD, and can improve glycemic and insulinemic indices12,14,69 – 71 and decrease blood glucose and insulin levels. 13,16,72 Lowfiber, high-glycemic load diets are associated with higher serum triglyceride levels and lower HDL-C levels, which are risk factors for CVD. 134,135 Increased fiber consumption may also help control body weight and support a weight reduction program by helping to reduce obesity and, possibly, the associated risk of CVD. 94 – 104 Safety aspects of fiber supplementationReduced absorption of trace elements has traditionally been proposed as a potential negative effect of dietary fiber intake;136,137 however, it is unlikely that healthy adults who consume fiber in amounts within the recommended ranges will have problems with nutrient absorption. In fact, clinical data demonstrate that soluble fibers (e. g. inulin, fructo-oligosaccharides, wheat dextrin) may positively affect the absorption of certain minerals. 3,10,11,64,65 Fermentation of dietary fiber by anaerobic bacteria in the large intestine produces gas (including hydrogen, methane and carbon dioxide), which may be related to complaints of distention or flatulence, especially with high intakes of fiber. An increase in dietary fiber should also be accompanied by an increase in fluid intake, and fiber should be increased gradually to allow th e gastrointestinal tract time to adapt.Normal laxation may be achieved with relatively small amounts of dietary Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 11 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber fiber, and the smallest intake that results in normal laxation should be used. 138 Nevertheless, wheat dextrin has been shown to be well tolerated even up to the relatively high intake of 45 g/day. 51 Higher daily intakes (60 and 80 g) resulted in greater flatulence (P < 0. 05) and some bloating compared with placebo, but no intake resulted in diarrhea. fiber can have beneficial effects on constipation, diarrhea and the symptoms of IBS.Soluble fiber also has additional positive effects on cardiovascular health, leading to a significant risk reduction of CHD. Thus, this review of the physiological effects and subsequent health benefits of soluble fibers suggests that daily fiber supplementation could be beneficial in those individ uals who are at risk of inadequate fiber in their diet. Most servings of common foods contain between 1 and 3 g of dietary fiber so it may be difficult to consume the recommended amounts of fiber. Dietary assessment programs can estimate fiber intake for different population groups, allowing the identification of groups that have deficient fiber intake.At an individual level, fiber intake can be generally estimated based on servings of fruits, vegetables and whole grains having 2 g of dietary fiber per serving, and servings of legumes having 5 g of dietary fiber per serving. Values from high-fiber cereals or fiber supplements can be added to these totals. Wheat dextrin is one example of a soluble fiber supplement that has been shown to help normalize bowel function and is well tolerated, even at large intakes. It is slowly but extensively fermented, leading to a significantly high production of SCFAs, while its slow fermentation profile could help minimize the undesirable effects of gas production and flatulence. Wheat dextrin has also demonstrated enhanced prebiotic capabilities when used at an intake of 30 – 45 g/day.Based on its physiological properties, supplementation with wheat dextrin should be useful in individuals that need to complete their dietary intake with a fiber in order to achieve the daily recommended dietary levels of fiber. Conclusion Review of the evidence indicates that soluble, fermentable fibers, including wheat dextrin, have positive physiological effects that may help to improve bowel regularity and result in some health benefits. Soluble fibers are fermented in the large intestine, leading to the production of SCFAs that lower colonic pH and result in a significant prebiotic effect in which the growth of beneficial intestinal microflora (e. g. ifidobacteria, lactobacilli) and fecal glucosidase concentrations are increased, while the growth of pH-sensitive pathogenic bacteria (e. g. clostridia) is prevented or suppressed. In th is way, SCFAs could promote normal bowel regularity and may help to reduce serum glucose and cholesterol levels. SCFAs also positively influence the absorption and retention of certain micronutrients (e. g. calcium, magnesium, zinc), and may improve immune function by stimulating the production of immunoprotective factors (e. g. T helper cells, antibodies) and improving the barrier properties of the colonic mucosal layer. Soluble fibers that are slowly yet extensively fermented in the large intestine (e. g. heat dextrin) are tolerated more easily than those that ferment quickly, as the latter can produce larger amounts of gas in a shorter period of time, leading to bloating and flatulence. By improving digestive balance, regularity and hydration in the gut, soluble Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 12 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber Acknowledgments Editorial support was given by Deborah Nock, DPP-Cordell Lt d, Saxthorpe, UK. Funding for the review was provided by Novartis Consumer Health, Nyon, Switzerland. Conflicts of interest Alberto Paredes-Diaz and Grigorios Fotopoulos were Novartis Consumer Health, employees at the time of manuscript preparation.The other authors had no conflicts of interest to declare in relation to this article. †¢ Received for publication 8 September 2008 †¢ Accepted subject to revision 9 September 2008 †¢ Revised accepted 11 December 2008 Copyright  © 2009 Field House Publishing LLP References 1 Cummings JH: The effect of dietary fiber on fecal weight and composition. In: CRC Handbook of Dietary Fiber in Human Nutrition (Spiller GA, ed), 2nd edn. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1993; pp 263 – 349. 2 Kleessen B, Sykura B, Zunft HJ, et al: Effects of inulin and lactose on fecal microflora, microbial activity, and bowel habit in elderly constipated persons. 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